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Social Change Initiatives for African-American andLatino Males in Los Angeles CountyKay RamseyWalden University
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Walden University
College of Social and Behavioral Sciences
This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by
Kathleen Ramsey
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made.
Review Committee Dr. Yvonne Thompson, Committee Chairperson,
Public Policy and Administration Faculty
Dr. Lydia Forsythe, Committee Member, Public Policy and Administration Faculty
Dr. Dianne Williams, University Reviewer, Public Policy and Administration Faculty
Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D.
Walden University 2017
Abstract
Social Change Initiatives for African-American and Latino Males in Los Angeles County
by
Kathleen Renee Ramsey
MA, Pepperdine University, 2012
MBA, University of Phoenix, 2007
BA, California State University, Los Angeles, 2005
Dissertation Submitted in Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Public Policy and Administration
Walden University
December 2017
Abstract
In the 21st Century, many Americans continue to fight battles for men of color who are at
the forefront of criminal injustice, unemployment, and low matriculation. With great
dominion and urgency, our Nation must ensure all men, regardless of the adversity can
succeed and build legacies in their families, communities, and the economy. In this action
research study, an ecological system theory was used to analyze the stakeholders who
have implemented the following public polices under the Obama Administration: 21st
Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and Race to the Top. This research answers the
question how stakeholders are able to impact positive social change through
implementing polices that focus on academia, criminal justice, and employment for
African-American and Latino males living in Los Angeles County. Data was retrieved
from 16 non-profit organizations; a target population was then sampled resulting in 25
participants that have expertise in working with men of color. Participant’s answered10
interview questions and their short answers were inductively coded, which revealed
significant themes. Daily mentorship was identified as the leading tool to garner success
in working with men color, while ecological influences, limited funding, policy
misalignment, and stereotypical threats have been recurring barriers. Key findings
recommended: mixed-method data, stakeholder collaborations, training programs, and
creative marketing. Furthermore, this study closes the gap towards aligning with public
polices that will create supportive services for men of color and offering stakeholders ‘the
what, and the how’ towards implementing social change.
Social Change Initiatives for African-American and Latino Males in Los Angeles County
by
Kathleen Renee Ramsey
MA, Pepperdine University, 2012
MBA, University of Phoenix, 2007
BA, California State University, Los Angeles, 2005
Dissertation Submitted in Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Public Policy and Administration
Walden University
December 2017
Dedication
To the men of color that persevere beyond adversity and to the men in search of
their own level of greatness I continue the WORK for you because “ you have to find
something that you love enough to be able to take risks, jump over the hurdles & break
through the brick walls that are always going to be placed in front of you, If you don’t
have that kind of feeling for what it is you are doing you’ll stop at the first giant hurdle”
George Lucas.
Acknowledgments
As a little girl I knew I wanted to have the D-R in front of my name and to have
this day come into fruition is truly a dream, prayer, wish, and twinkle in my eye come
true. I first want to thank my angel resting in heaven…my mother for choosing to love
me continuously beyond foster care and adopting me into her home, life, and heart. The
community I grew up in truly shaped me into the woman I am and aspire to become. It
has also been the phenomenal men that I have met over the years that have touched my
heart. These men have made my heart skip a beat with the hope the generations that come
thereafter, will carry their essence; for they have inspired me to write on such a topic as
this: Oshea Luja, George McDonald, Khi-Min Jung, Erron Jay, Tony Norman, Thomas
Aaron, Greg Abellera, Dr. Gregory Canillas, Dr. Thomas Thompson, Phillip Usher, Joe
Rouzan, Feliciano Shields, and Mike Joseph E. I also want to thank my “Mentor” I have
never met him but he changed my life through his books, videos, conferences, and
podcast…Dr. Eric Thomas the motivational speaker. To my dissertation committee thank
you for putting up with me for all these years; Dr. Lydia Forsythe and Dr. Yvonne
Thompson, I offer infinite thanks and gratitude for your encouragement, mentorship,
thoughtfulness, steadfastness, countless edits and the ability to push me beyond
unforeseen levels of greatness. To the most important women in my life thank you for
your strength, love, and always checking on me: Dr. Sarah Haider my kindred spirit, and
Khristina Sanders my best friend. Most of all, I want to offer a special heartfelt thanks to
all of my dissertation participants. Lastly, to my Grandfather Willie Mack who is also
resting in heaven, thank you for showing me what a man should be.
i
Table of Contents
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ................................................................................... 1
Background ................................................................................................................... 1
Problem Statement .................................................................................................. 2
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 4
Research Question ................................................................................................... 4
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 4
Nature of Study ....................................................................................................... 7
21st Century Policing .............................................................................................. 8
My Brother’s Keeper ............................................................................................... 9
Race to the Top ....................................................................................................... 9
Operational Definitions ......................................................................................... 11
Assumptions .......................................................................................................... 13
Scope and Delimitations ........................................................................................ 13
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 15
Significance ........................................................................................................... 16
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 18
Introduction to Literature Review ............................................................................... 18
Literature Search Strategy ..................................................................................... 18
ii
Theoretical Foundation ......................................................................................... 19
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 20
Literature Review .................................................................................................. 21
Men of Color ......................................................................................................... 21
Disparities .............................................................................................................. 24
Academia ............................................................................................................... 24
Criminal Justice ..................................................................................................... 26
Employment .......................................................................................................... 28
Initiatives ............................................................................................................... 29
My Brother’s Keeper ............................................................................................. 29
Race to the Top ..................................................................................................... 31
21st Century Policing ............................................................................................ 33
Barriers .................................................................................................................. 33
Theory ................................................................................................................... 36
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 3: Research Method ............................................................................................. 41
Research Design Rationale .......................................................................................... 42
Role of Researcher ...................................................................................................... 42
Methodology ............................................................................................................... 43
Participant Selection Logic ................................................................................... 43
Instrumentation ...................................................................................................... 43
Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection .......................... 45
iii
Data Analyses Plan ................................................................................................ 45
Issues of Trustworthiness ...................................................................................... 45
Ethical Procedures ................................................................................................. 46
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 47
Chapter 4: Results ............................................................................................................. 48
Setting ................................................................................................................... 48
Demographics .............................................................................................................. 48
Data Collection ............................................................................................................ 49
Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 49
Evidence of Trustworthiness ....................................................................................... 50
Results ......................................................................................................................... 51
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 53
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations ............................................. 55
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 55
Interpretation of the Findings ................................................................................ 55
Limitations, Recommendations and Implications of the Study .................................. 62
Recommendations ................................................................................................. 65
Implications ........................................................................................................... 67
Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 71
Future Research ..................................................................................................... 72
References ......................................................................................................................... 75
Appendix A: Interview Questions ..................................................................................... 90
iv
Appendix B: Focus Group Questions ................................................................................ 92
Appendix C: Results .......................................................................................................... 93
v
List of Tables
Table 1. Phases of the Dissertation Study ......................................................................... 48
Table 2. Recommendations ............................................................................................... 68
vi
List of Figures
Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory diagram .................................................... 12
Figure 2. Phases of the dissertation study ......................................................................... 54
1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Background
The United States has experienced an increase in the number of African-
American men killed by police (Swaine & McCarthy, 2017). This is problematic as the
loss of life affects communities, the local economy, and the families of the victims
(Swaine & McCarthy, 2017). The National Center of Fathering (2013) reported
fatherlessness as the most significant familial-social problem facing America. The U.S.
Census Bureau reported 57.6% of black children and 31.2% of Latino children live
without their biological father (U.S. Fatherless Statistics, 2016). According to the Bureau
of the Census (2017), 90% of homeless and runaway children come from fatherless
homes. In addition, 71% of high school dropouts come from fatherless homes, as reported
from the National Principals Association Report on the state of high schools (U.S.
Fatherless Statistics, 2016). A special report from the U.S. Department of Justice stated
70% of juveniles in state-operated institutions have no father (U.S. Fatherless Statistics,
2016). Positive social change among African-American and Latino males was an
identified need In 2014, the Obama Administration developed the initiative of My
Brother’s Keeper, which addresses the disparities in academia, criminal justice, and
employment of young boys of color through partnerships with businesses and
foundations (Joiner, 2014). Other initiatives that contribute to shifting adverse statistics
for African-American and Latino males are 21st Century Policing, which bridges the gap
between local police and the community while reducing crime and building trust. The
2
Race to the Top initiative focuses on education reform and improves results for children
to ensure long-term gains for students in college and career (Harris, 2012).
Although the initiatives under the Obama Administration were formed to create
social change for men of color, the media and scholarly literature often fails to highlight
their successes. In this action research, I asked the question, how are stakeholders able to
impact positive social change through implementing polices that focus on academia,
criminal justice, and employment for African-American and Latino males living in Los
Angeles County? A critical analysis on the stakeholders was conducted on those that
have taken on the challenge of implementing 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s
Keeper, and Race to the Top to discover their success towards program implementation.
The goal of this research is to close the research gap in analyzing initiatives to implement
positive social change for African-American and Latino males in Los Angeles County;
thus, resulting in successful outcomes for men of color in academia within the criminal
justice system, and employment.
Problem Statement
In February 2015, the unemployment rate, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor
of Statistics, was 10.4% for African-Americans, while it was less than half of that number
for whites (as cited in Morrison, 2015). The high unemployment rate for African-
American and Latino men has a negative effect on their families and communities
(Morrison, 2015). Media prejudices can be revealed through stereotyping, which may
influence employers, resulting in higher unemployment (Rabinowitz, 2015). Of those
males not contributing to the economy, the Knafo (2013) stated that one-third of African-
3
American males will end up in prison, while Latino males are the fastest group being
imprisoned, according to the sentencing project (The Sentencing Project, 2008).
Unlocking America (2007) reported that if African-American and Latino males went to
prison at the same rate white males did, the prison population rate would decline by 50%.
Furthermore, African-American men who avoid prison only make up 5.5% of all college
students (Feierman, 2014).
In the past 15 years there has been an increase of nonprofit organizations whose
mission is to create social change by shifting the adverse statistics affecting African-
American and Latino males (citation). However, for this population to break self-
fulfilling prophecies, stakeholders need to be cognizant of all the barriers they are up
against. According to Guyll, Madon, Prieto, and Scherr (2010), “Self-fulfilling
prophecies can have long-term and negative influences on the outcomes of targets who
are perceived unfavorably, ultimately widening the gap between advantaged and
disadvantaged groups” (p. 116). In addition, psychological barriers play a significant role
in program challenges due to the shame and embarrassments of the needed services
(Rabinowitz, 2015).
In previous literature, researchers often highlighted the negative stereotypes of
African-American and Latino males within their lack of matriculation, frequency in the
criminal justice system, and unemployment rates (Bush & Bush, 2013). It has only been
within the past decade that there has been a focus on the success in educational
attainment for this demographic (Bush & Bush, 2013). In addition, there is a limited body
4
of knowledge on how stakeholders address the barriers when providing services to
African-American and Latino males.
Purpose of the Study
This research focused on the positive initiatives under the Obama Administration,
21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and Race to the Top, that implement social
change in the lives of African-American and Latino males. The major concern presented
is that despite the numerous nonprofit organizations and initiatives that have a vision to
shift statistics in academia, criminal justice, and employment, the changes over time
remain stagnant. The purpose of this study was to analyze the public policy initiatives
that were created to implement social change in the areas of academia, criminal justice,
and employment in the lives of African-American and Latino males in Los Angeles
County. This research sought to close the gap in literature, in analyzing the barriers and
success that stakeholders are challenged with as they implement initiatives that will affect
social change in the areas of academia, criminal justice, and employment.
Research Question
How are stakeholders able to impact positive social change through implementing
polices that focus on academia, criminal justice, and employment for African-American
and Latino males living in Los Angeles County?
Conceptual Framework
Action research was the framework used for this study, which has been coined as
the ideal change model for nonprofit organizations (Fletcher, Zuber-Skerritt, Bartlett,
Albertyn, & Kearney, 2010). The action research model was first developed by Lewin
5
(1944), which integrates inquiry through a cyclical process of planning, implementing,
observing, and reflecting (Fletcher, Zuber-Skerritt, Bartlett, Albertyn, & Kearney, 2010).
“Action research stresses that for change to be effective, it must take place at the group
level, and must be a participative and a collaborative process which involves all of those
concerned” (Burnes, 2004, p. 984). Researchers discovered action research requires
investment and time to balance community-based projects and patience to handle the
possible tensions that come along with affecting change (Carlisle & Cropper, 2009). In
implementing policy change, researchers have challenges with establishing scientific
evidence and garnering civic engagement; however, action research strategies help to fill
these gaps (Carcari-Stone, Wallerstein, Garcia & Minkler, 2014). More specifically,
Carcari-Stone et al. (2014) applied action research with the alignment of social justice,
which is community-based participatory research. Community-based participatory
research engages partners, researches, analyzes, and defines the problem to help effect
change with the findings (Carcari-Stone et al., 2014). Historically, action research has
been a cyclical, dynamic, collaborative process that invokes social improvement, ideal for
nonprofit organizations (Hine, 2013). This approach was best suited for this study
because the goal is to analyze and discover how organizations have implemented a
collaborative process to implement social change in the lives of men of color.
In understanding the impact of high incarceration rates, police brutality, high
school dropout rates, unemployment, and low matriculation into higher education,
stakeholders’ greatest tool is the utilization of the theories of change model, which is the
second theory for this research. Nonprofit organizations have used theory of change to
6
develop solutions for complex social problems and bring about social change (Annie E.
Casey Foundation, 2004). Theory of change was developed in the 1990s by Weis at the to
assist stakeholders in reaching a long-term goal through strategic planning (Annie E.
Casey Foundation, 2004). “Theory of change turns conventional planning on its head
because it pushes groups to figure out their goals or desired impact and work backwards
towards outcome pathways rather than engage in conventional forward orientated, so that
reasoning” (Taplin, Clark, Collins, & Colby, 2013, p. 3). Although theory of change
originated as an evaluation tool, it has been known to measure success, strengthen
partnerships, support organizational development, and facilitate communication (Taplin
et al., 2013). The theory of change is a living document to be implemented and meet
organizational benchmarks (Taplin et al., 2013).
To create social change amongst this demographic, and to shift the stereotypical
disparities that have historically affected families, communities, and the economy of
African-American and Latino males, the lens of ecological systems theory was used to
for the theoretical framework to understand the levels between individuals and social
systems (Suarez-Balcazar, Balcazar, Garcia-Rameriz & Taylor-Ritzler, 2014). As seen in
Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory diagram, explains “levels vary in their
complexity and interaction, ranging from social, political, and economic forces (macro);
to community, school, and town (meso); to (micro) which where the individual
interactions in day to day face-to-face experiences” (Orrock & Clark, 2015 p. 12). For
stakeholders to begin to create social change that will influence statistics for African-
7
American and Latino males, ecological systems theory aids in the conceptualization of
multicultural psychology and how it influences behavior (Suarez-Balcazar, et al. 2014).
Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory diagram
Nature of Study
The nature of this qualitative study used action research as the framework and
ecological theory and theories of change for the theoretical foundation. It evaluated the
outcomes and barriers in implementing 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and
Race to the Top for African-American and Latino males whom are challenged with
adversities in obtaining academic success, employment, and justice. I conducted an action
research analysis to determine if public policies have an impact on creating social change
in the lives of men of color and identified strategic solutions for stakeholders.
8
21st Century Policing
The goal of 21st Century Policing is to build trust between the law enforcement
and the communities they serve (President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing,
2015).). United States’ President Obama signed the executive order in 2014 to establish
the 21st Century Policy Task Force (President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing,
2015). Over the span of a year, the task force adopted six action items to address: (a)
building trust and legitimacy, (b) policy and oversight, (c) technology and social media,
(d) community policing, and (e) crime reduction (Presidents Task Force on 21st Century
Policing, 2015). In reference to adapting technology and social media, the task force
discovered the use of body-worn cameras resulted in 90% fewer incident reports and 60%
fewer civilian complaints (Presidents Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015).
“Body-worn cameras are mobile audio and video capture devices that allow officers to
record what they see and hear” (A Primer on Body-Worn Cameras for Law Enforcement,
2012, p5). Self-awareness was attributed to these significant improvements in police-
civilian interaction for both parties, merely for, behaving better (Presidents Task Force on
21st Century Policing, 2015). In the first quarter of 2016, the Long Beach Police
Department in California, joined thousands of officers around the country in wearing
body-worn cameras, which is a part of a 1-year pilot program (Ruiz, 2016). The pilot
program awards 40-50 officers with body cameras, as well as supplies the Long Beach
Police Department with the infrastructure, support, and training to achieve 21st Century
Policing (Ruiz, 2016). Researchers from the California State University Long Beach
criminal justice department and the Urban Institute are assisting in analyzing the pilot
9
program (Ruiz, 2016). The Urban Institute is a think tank in Washington, DC focused on
offering solutions through economic and social policy research (Ruiz, 2016).
My Brother’s Keeper
As stated previously, My Brother’s Keeper was established by Obama on
February 27, 2014. Obama’s presidential task force was comprised to develop programs
to improve the circumstances of men of color in conjunction with various organizations
Harris, 2012). In 2016, the Task Force reported on their first 2 years and My Brother’s
Keeper has since been established in 250 communities in 50 states Harris, 2012).
Evidence-based polices have shown MBK to have positive outcomes in the following
areas as stated in the My Brother’s Keeper 2016 Progress Report:
• Entering school ready to learn;
• Reading at grade level by third grade;
• Graduating from high school ready for college and career;
• Completing postsecondary education or training; successfully entering the
workforce;
• Reducing violence and providing a second chance to justice-involved youth.
Over the years, My Brother’s Keeper has implemented polices to address
disparities in the lives of men of color and continues to strengthen communities, and
transform lives Harris, 2012).
Race to the Top
The Race to the Top initiative was launched in 2009 under the Obama
Administration as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) to
10
improve educational progress, ensure students compete with the global economy and to
affect social change in the lives of low-income students and students of color
(Fundamental Change: Innovation in America’s Schools Under Race to the Top, 2015).
Currently, the Race to the Top initiative has been implemented in the District of
Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Tennessee (Fundamental Change: Innovation in
America’s Schools Under Race to the Top, 2015). The Research Alliance of New York
City Schools conducted a report on how high schools serve Black and Latino young men
(Villavicencio, Klevan, & Kang, 2015) and improves college readiness (Villavicencio,
Bhattacharya, & Guidry, 2013). The Research Alliance for New York City Schools was
established in 2008, from a group of civic leaders focused on collaborating with policy
makers to address problems at city schools with high-quality research and offering reform
strategies (The Research Alliance for New York City Schools, 2016).
The stakeholders for 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and Race to the
Top have established a momentous resolve to establish social change in the lives of
African-American and Latino males. This body of literature contributes in understanding
how past research and methods were applied in five key areas: barriers, disparities, public
policy initiatives, men of color, and theory. This research helps close the gap in literature
in specifically addressing a demographic that have barriers in achieving academic
success, employment and fighting injustice to improve public policy statistics. Further
research can expand the knowledge base through researching various genders, ethnicities,
and initiatives.
11
In this action research qualitative study, the methods used consisted of specific
open-ended interviews through online email distribution, and phone interviews. A focus
group was also established to develop solutions for the targeted population. Lastly, all
data was analyzed using hand coding.
Operational Definitions
21st Century Policing: Twenty-first Century Policing is an executive order
signed by President Obama to bridge the gap between local police and the community
(Interim Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015). Given the
urgency of these issues, the President gave the task force an initial 90-days to identify
best practices and offer recommendations on how policing practices can promote
effective crime reduction while building public trust (Interim Report of the President’s
Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015, p.2).
Action research model: The action research model is used to provide a theoretical
foundation that investigates a concept through critical analysis and helps gain awareness
to alter their beliefs and perceptions (Harnett, 2012).
Barriers: Barriers are the conditions, policies, or attitudes that prevent or make it
difficult for participants to utilize and enjoy a beneficial service (Rabinowitz, 2015).
My Brother’s Keeper: My Brother’s Keeper is an initiative created by the Obama
Administration to address the disparities in academia, criminal justice, and employment
of young boys of color in a partnership with businesses and foundations (Obama, 2014).
Ecological Theory: Ecological theory “examines the interaction between the
individual and his or her cultural and sociopolitical environment, placing much emphasis
12
on the relationships formed by interacting levels of influence” (Suarez-Balcazar, et al.,
2014, p. 536).
Race to the Top: Rach to the Top is a grant signed into law in the American
Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) through the Obama Administration.
Race to the Top focuses on education reform and improves results for children to ensure
long-term gains for students (Race to the Top Executive Summary, 2009). “Race to the
Top Fund…makes substantial gains in student achievement, closing achievement gaps,
improving high school graduation rates, and ensuring student preparation for success in
college and career; and implementing ambitious plans for core education reform areas”
(Race to the Top Executive Summary, 2009, p.1).
Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Self-fulfilling prophecy is a concept that stems from
Becker’s theory in stating individuals that are labeled negatively will become the
negative stereotype placed upon them (Gold & Richards, 2012).
Theory of change: Theory of change “describes a process of planned social
change, from the assumptions that guide its design to the long-term goals it seeks to
achieve.” (Mackinnon, Amott, & McGarvey, 2006, p. 2).
Research Alliance for New York City Schools: The Research Alliance for New
York City Schools was established in 2008 from a group of civic leaders focused on
collaborating with policy makers to address problems at city schools with high-quality
research and offering reform strategies (The Research Alliance for New York City
Schools, 2016).
13
Urban Institute: The Urban Institute is a think tank in Washington, DC that is
focused on offering solutions through economic and social policy research (Ruiz, 2016).
Assumptions
There are two key assumptions regarding barriers against policy initiatives as they
affect African-American and Latino males. In the first assumption, I assumed that the
stakeholders who adapted the public policy initiatives to assist men of color in
progressing within academia, the economy, and the criminal justice system were seeking
positive outcomes for men. The other assumption I made was that the stakeholders faced
difficulties in affecting social change as it pertains to political initiatives and grant
objects.
Scope and Delimitations
The goal of this research is to analyze the barriers stakeholders have in affecting
change in the way political initiatives are implemented. Moreover, stakeholders that have
implemented 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and Race to the Top are
dedicated towards shifting the negative stereotypes placed upon African-American and
Latino males. This population often attributes stereotypical threats towards the increase in
high school dropouts, low matriculation, high incarceration rates, and unemployment,
leaving the family unit, community, and economy in a deficit (Guyll, et al, 2010) . West
(2001) stated that the problematic social circumstances continue to be revealed in the
wavering statistics of unemployment, incarnation, police brutality, and education. More
importantly, the initiatives created under the Obama Administration, 21st Century
Policing, Race to the Top and My Brother’s Keeper, specifically focused on targeting the
14
statistics due to the overwhelming lack of significant change within these marginalized
communities.
Despite the economic recoveries within the black unemployment rate, African-
Americans still see minimal gains compared to other ethnicities (Morrison, 2015). The
unemployment rate for African- American and Latino men negatively affect their
families and communities as these men continue to drop out of the labor force
(Blackwell, 2014). According to data released by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, the
unemployment rate for African-Americans was 9.6%, while for Latinos; it was 4.7%
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). My Brother’s Keeper focuses on “young men getting
connected to the world of work, while their communities gain, and the economy gets a
boost from higher workforce participation” (Blackwell, 2014, p.1). The American Civil
Liberties Foundation adds to the research when stating, “once arrested African-American
and Latino juveniles are more likely to face tougher convictions and face racial
disparities when charged with similar crimes to their white counterparts” (American Civil
Liberties Foundation, 2014, p. 1). The disparities in education suggest that African-
American and Latino males growing up in the inner cities of Los Angeles County are
often raised in communities that struggle with high school delinquency and low
matriculation rates (Knafo, 2013). In 2013, Knafo (2013) stated that if we are unable to
inspire our men towards the pathway of education then the cycle of broken men, families,
and communities continue a systematic decline. The Race to the Top initiative is hyper-
focused on closing achievement gaps from high school to college to career (Race to the
Top Executive Summary, 2009). For African-American and Latino males living in the
15
inner city, police shootings and police brutality is far more commonplace than for other
races (Markam, 2015). With the 21st Century Policing Task Force, the goal is to shift this
reality, bring the community and law enforcement together recreating a new foundation
of trust (Interim Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015).
Limitations
This study has limitations in three key areas; demographics, stakeholder
initiatives, and the statistics analyzed. The purpose of this research is primarily focused
on African- American and Latino males. Furthermore, only three initiatives under the
Obama initiative were analyzed: 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and Race
to the Top. Lastly, the policies analyzed are specific to the impact of academia, criminal
justice, and employment.
With further exploration, researchers have the opportunity to discover the barriers
of other initiatives that target various demographics that will potentially alleviate
disparaging statistics on the populations studied. Other researchers might consider how
the same disparities affect African-American and Latina women or an entirely different
ethnicity group. My research also has limitations in only capturing the voice of the
stakeholders and not the participants receiving the support. A case study of the
participants served could serve as an elevated platform in evoking change and promise
for those affected as well as the leaders serving them. Globally, researchers may also look
to see how public policy initiatives affect one nation from the next and the differing
barriers towards success in helping various ethnicities. As the scale of research expands
the opportunity for quantitative data is also relevant and limited in this research.
16
Significance
The significance of this study is to give public policy stakeholders the tools to
affect social change within the lives of the African-American and Latino inner-city
males. This research closes a gap in literature in addressing the adverse effects African-
American and Latino males are challenged with when living in the inner cities of Los
Angeles County. It is also significant in providing stakeholders the fundamental tools
toward implementing similar initiatives and programs for men of color.
This study encourages stakeholders, nonprofit directors, community activists, and
public policy makers to understand what is working in affecting change within this
population. It is also significantly important to hear the stories of those challenged with
adversity in future research to hear how they triumphed to be a testament for others.
Summary
This study addresses the urgency for African-American and Latino males to
succeed beyond adversity living in the inner cities of Los Angeles County. The Obama
Administration implemented initiatives to reduce crime, increase graduation rates, and
offer a path of guidance towards success. These initiatives are 21st Century Policing, My
Brother’s Keeper, and Race to the Top, which are geared towards ensuring African-
American and Latino males growing up in various inner cities have an opportunity to
achieve success beyond their adversities (Guyll et al., 2010). The major concern
presented is this research is based upon the numerous nonprofit organizations and
initiatives that have a vision to shift statistics in academia, criminal justice, and
17
employment; however, the changes over time lack a significant statistical increase
towards social change.
The nature of this study is a qualitative action research inquiry, using ecological
theory and theory of change as the theoretical foundation. Action research was used to
analyze the success and barriers of 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and
Race to the Top. Theory of change was used to provide stakeholders with information on
reaching long-term goals towards social change. Whereas, ecological theory offers
stakeholders the insight to conceptualize on how meso, macro, and micro influences
behavior of men of color. In summation, this policy analysis seeks to find the causes of
the barriers within stakeholder’s initiatives and provide remedies to help close the
research gap and produce successful outcomes for African-American and Latino males.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction to Literature Review
The absence of a positive male figure contributes to youth in prison,
homelessness, runaways, and high school delinquency (U.S. Fatherless Statistics, 2016).
The Obama Administration created initiatives to ensure that not only men of color
succeed, but all youth (Joiner, 2014). This action research study specifically explored
how African-American and Latino males contribute to high incarceration rates, low
matriculation into college, and an increase in high school dropout rates. A significant
amount of nonprofit organizations have taken on the challenge to address these outcomes;
unfortunately, lack of change in the statistics questions the effectiveness in the initiatives
and induced me to discover what the barriers are preventing initiative success. In this
literature review, I sought to discover the current barriers in policy formulation as well as
why the chosen demographic has been stagnant in improving. The goal is to bridge the
gap in literature by providing stakeholders the necessary tools to affect social change in
the lives of African-American and Latino males living in the underserved, lower
socioeconomic inner cities of Los Angeles County.
Literature Search Strategy
The strategy taken to conduct this literature review started with an analysis of
journals, books, white papers, magazines, and dissertations published within the last 5
years from electronic libraries provided by Walden University and the general internet.
Abstracts of peer-reviewed journal articles were reviewed for content and relevancy.
Database searches included Political Science Complete, Business Source Complete,
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Academic Search Complete, Psych Article, Psych Info, Regional Business News,
Education Search Complete, and Research Starters. Electronic keyword searches
included ecological theory, policy design theory, action research model, Kurt Lewin,
change model, theory of change, logic model, barriers in nonprofit organizations, self-
fulfilling prophecy, systematic oppression, public policy, education, success, police
brutality, incarcerations, graduation rate, unemployment, adversity, disparity, political
initiatives, men of color, Black men, African-American and Latino men.
Theoretical Foundation
Ecological theory was used in this research to provide an understanding of
socially complex problems affecting African-American and Latino males. The origin of
ecological theory was formed in 1977 by Bronfenbrenner to examine child development
and to analyze the influence of the environment on individual behavior (Suarex-Balcazar,
Balcazar, Garcia-Rameriz, & Taylor-Ritzler, 2014). In my research, the goal was to
understand the barriers towards creating social change within academia, criminal justice,
and employment for African-American and Latino males living in the inner cities of Los
Angeles County. Ecological theory provided a multifaceted approach in exploring the
areas men of color struggle to thrive. Ecological theory was the ideal theoretical
foundation for this research as I sought to discover the multiple systems that stakeholders
utilize in implementing social change. Ecological theory provides a reflective
understanding on how stakeholders can strategically analyze the barriers of political
initiatives for men of color (Suarex-Balcazar, Balcazar, Garcia-Rameriz, & Taylor-
Ritzler, 2014). Therefore, if inner city African-American and Latino males fail to adhere
20
to the stereotypical disparities, then the self-fulfilling prophecies becomes invalid
(Gooding-Williams, 1998). Consequently, scholars often fail to discuss the barriers
stakeholders have when implementing public policy initiatives affecting men of color.
Furthermore, my research fills the gap in literature in understanding why this particular
demographic statistical data fails to shift towards promising outcomes for men of color
regardless of the influx of supportive services.
Conceptual Framework
Before identifying a strategic initiative for stakeholders to implement, a
situational impediment should be identified. In this research, I used the theory of change
as the conceptual framework, it provides a visual map for stakeholders to evaluate and
plan programs focused on social change. In a review of best practices for theory of
change, researchers developed mental health care plans in low and middle-income
countries to establish evidence based strategic platforms to obtain stakeholder buy-in
(Breuer et al., 2014). The results revealed that the theory of change is an effective
planning and evaluation tool that also provides the catalyst for stakeholders to have a
consensus in program delivery (Breuer et al., 2014). On a separate platform, Walker and
Matarese (2011) used the theory of change in evaluating wraparound services, which is a
comprehensive community based care for at-risk clients. The use of the theory of change
in this research resulted in a high quality, well-functioning, cohesive team that was able
to establish a commitment towards the team’s purpose and principles (Walker &
Matarese, 2011). The theory of change used in this research resulted in a greater need for
21
stakeholder cohesive as they often work in a silo yet focused on similar goals to affect
change.
Furthermore, “other researchers have contended that a well-developed theory of
change can serve effectively as a theoretical framework for implementation” (Walker &
Matarese, 2011, p.796). Conversely, Gready (2013), explored new concepts in
organizational change for nongovernmental organizations and expressed that the theory
of change cannot solve operational problems unless the theories are integrated into the
footprint of the organization and stakeholders.
Literature Review
The literature review compiled initiatives into five themes: barriers, disparities,
initiatives, men of color, and theory. With use of Cooper’s Taxonomy of Literature
Reviews, the focus is on research outcomes and the goal is a generalized integration of
neutral perspectives. In addition, the central coverage will be organized
methodologically, with an intended audience of policymakers and nonprofit stakeholders.
Men of Color
In identifying the barriers that nonprofit organizations experience in supporting
men of color, researchers need to understand the unique cultural competencies of this
targeted population. Throughout the years, African-American and Latino males have
been perceived as subhuman, loveless, and incorrigible (Willams, Aiyer, Durkee, &
Tolan, 2014). This sort of devaluing, negatively affects their ethnic identity, promotes
antisocial criminal behavior, and police profiling which makes it difficult for them to
obtain supportive services and become an integral part of the economy (Willams et al.,
22
2014). It has been stated “no other group of people are emulated yet despised
simultaneously to the extent that black men are today” (Howard, 2013, p. 55). In
effecting change in the lives of men of color, it is necessary to investigate how
stakeholders keep ethnic disparities at the forefront in meeting their program objectives.
In a longitudinal study, researchers discovered that African-American and Latino males
living in the inner city who have increased exposure to violence and family hardship also
had high levels of aggressive behavior and delinquency (Willams et al., 2014). In
addition, Latino-Americans are depicted to have a negative vulnerability to emotional
distress (Nunez et al., 2015). Researchers also examined the dominant male gender roles
of machismo (a Spanish term) and applied it with negative cognitive-emotional factors
(Nunez et. al, 2015). However, even though machismo has elements of bravery, honor,
and dominance, it encompasses reserved emotions (Nunez et. al, 2015).
As researchers conceptualize the male identity and discuss some of the
psychosocial stressors that are related to growing up in the inner city, it is also evident
that mental health is a contributing factor towards their well-being. Similarly, the
construction of masculine identity, regardless of the negativity portrayed, is often a
byproduct of social media (Watkins, 2012). Watkins (2012) considered the well-being of
African-American men in determining six social determinants of depression that affect
African-American men over the course of their life. It has been conveyed their mental
health status is the key component for reaching levels of success, which leads to
economic prosperity throughout their life (Watkins, 2012. The same holds true for Latino
Americans, research shows that lower socio-economic status contributes to a lower sense
23
of self, masculinity, and academic performance (Ojeda, Piña-Watson, & Gonzalez, 2016).
“It is possible for youth whom feel a sense of powerlessness often experience angst and
hopelessness toward future aspirations (Lorenzo-Blanco, Unger, Baezconde-Garbunati, &
Rett-Olsen, 2012). In addition, research revealed that traditional roles in the Latino
American communities contribute to depressive symptoms and stress which can signify
mental health barriers towards success (Piña-Watson, Castillo, Jung, & Castillo-Reyes,
2014).
When researchers examine the well-being of men of color across cultures, the
male identity is usually the cornerstone of the family. It has been reported that 72% of
African-Americans come from single parent homes; with young men being raised by
their mothers and or grandmothers, there is a lack of a male role model (Dickerson,
2014). Research explains when African-American men are empowered so are their entire
families (Eniya, Watkins, & Williams, 2016). In further exploration, regardless of a
single parent household, involved-diligent parenting styles also contribute to
developmental competencies in African-American youth (Hurd, Varner, & Rowley,
2012). The integrative model of minority child development indicates the benefit of
parental and mentoring relationships, which promote positive socio-emotional
development (Hurd et al., 2012). Beyond the four walls of schools, teachers and coaches
can influence positive outcomes in youth living in urban communities (Richardson,
2012). Horner, Rew, and Brown (2012) emphasized the importance for parents to openly
communicate their expectations, which will also lead to developmental support (Horner,
Rew, & Brown, 2012). Organizations like 100 Black Men of Long Beach and the Social
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Justice Learning Institute expressed men of color need consistent daily motivation
towards persevering to change. Emic and etic influences can often-illicit barriers in the
lives of men of color, however non-organizations like these instill various levels of
confidence, self-esteem and self-development.
Disparities
Throughout the United States, men of color from a lower socioeconomic status
have been subject to the stereotypes and the self-fulfilling prophecies of incarceration,
high school dropout rates, and lack of matriculation into college (Willams et al., 2014).
Within Los Angeles inner cities, African-American and Latino males have been become
the focal point of innovative public policy initiatives that have been creating social
change in their lives (Willams et al., 2014). The following literature explores the success
and barriers in areas of academia, criminal justice, and employment, which is beneficial
for stakeholders working with this population.
Academia
African-American adolescents experience racial discrimination in school settings
that challenge them to be successful academically (Butler-Barnes, Chavous, Hurd, &
Vurd, 2013). Dealing with race, attending lower performing schools, and coming from
poverty, notably has negative effects on adolescents, which also affects their self-efficacy
(Butler-Barnes et al., 2013). It is more beneficial when stakeholders adopt a
comprehensive approach when working with men of color (Butler-Barnes et al., 2013). In
recent years, racial discrimination across the United States has become a topic of
conversation. As state policies are constructed and re-examined through a lens of racial
25
biases, some researchers feel the achievement gap will never be closed (Christopher,
2013). Despite the perception of some researchers, African- American and Latino males,
even in the face of academic hardships, often put on a façade of resiliency in reluctance
to appear vulnerable (Bukoski & Hatch, 2016).
Other research reveals that, regardless of the setback, youth coming from
adversity have been found to thrive and succeed towards better opportunities (Conchas,
Lin, Oseguera & Drake, 2015). Their adversities give them a sense of self-determination
and discipline to succeed (Land, Mixon, Butcher & Harris, 2014). Successful African-
American high school students combated their personal adversities of absent fathers,
disruptive homes, and inadequate school systems with gaining a sense spiritualty and the
desire to make their mom and school personnel proud (Land et al., 2014). Researchers
have also identified positive factors in young men’s pathways toward academic success,
which were role models that reflected success and struggle (Cerezo, Lyda, Beristianos,
Enriquez, & Connor, 2012). Additionally, having supportive friends aids towards
successful outcomes in academia (Espinoza, Gillen-O’Neal, Gonzales, & Fuligni, 2014).
Orrock and Clark (2015) identified self-concept for promoting the success of African-
American males in school, family, and community. African-American and Latino males
reportedly found success when they were intrinsically motivated to put their focus on
obtaining material possessions (Bukoski & Hatch, 2016). Males and/or youth being
hyper-focused on material possessions is significantly credited towards music, media, and
the Internet (Anderson et al., 2003). The goal of material possessions for youth,
26
regardless of the perseverance required to obtain goals, serves as a motivator that often
begins with an extrinsic component (Anderson, et. al., 2003).
Latino males have an increased level of roadblocks in their journey towards
college completion and job placement; research indicated a “sense of not belonging” as
the key factor (Borrego & Borrego, 2015, p484). Latinos traditionally come from a
collectivistic culture, with values in collaboration/interdependence, and if they are able to
acculturate, they will have a higher sense of self-efficacy within academia (Ojeda et al.,
2016). Family detachment has also been identified as an overarching barrier for young
males’ lack of academic success (Walker, 2012). In Latino males, pride (machismo) has
been a barrier toward academic success and prevents them from seeking academic
support (Saenz, Bukoski, Lu, & Rodriguez, 2013). Fear of failure also plays a major role
in their educational pathways, instead of seeking help, fear leads to excuses which creates
an escape plan (Saenz et al., 2013).
Criminal Justice
In 1967, Dr. Martin Luther King stood outside Santa Rita Prison with a crowd
giving a vigil after a peace movement and iterated these prophetic words “There can be
no justice without peace and there can be no peace without justice” (Mulhall, 2014). It’s
nearly fifty years later and the chant of No Justice No Peace still echoes as we continue to
witness injustice. “Consequently, economically disadvantaged youth growing up in urban
contexts are at a greater risk for traumatic exposure, violent injury, and premature death
than middleclass youth growing up in suburban areas” (Smith & Patton, 2016 p. 212).
27
There are significantly higher incarceration rates in the African-American and
Latino community, non-profit organizations attempt to combat this through education and
sport programs. However, the infiltration of recidivism organizations offers a reality for
some males whom need support beyond incarceration. In an effort for recidivism to be
successful, young African-American males need comprehensive services in areas of
education employment, housing assistance, substance abuse, and family support
(Stepteau-Watson, & Lawrence, 2014). Recidivism services can assist those formerly
incarcerated toward a path of overcoming barriers and becoming contributing members
of our society (Stepteau-Watson, & Lawrence, 2014). However, the contrary remains for
those who fail to receive support, they will follow a path back into incarceration
(Stepteau-Watson, & Lawrence, 2014). Incarceration has become a normative cycle in
the lives of African-American and Latino males; this adversity significantly affects their
masculine identity (Patrick, 2014). Those youths who become incarcerated often
experience feelings of realism, fear, inferiority and a level of rage as they now view
themselves as a criminal (Shuckle, 2012). Reportedly, criminal activity peaks during late
adolescence and subjectively declines as youth enter adulthood (Sweeten, Piquero, &
Steinberg, 2013), which can be credited to distinct levels of psychological maturity
(Knight, et. al., 2012). However, contrary to what many believe those that are vulnerable
to adverse social environment are also the ones that benefit from environmental support
(Simons, et al., 2012). Incarceration has also allowed other discriminating rights to
remain legal, such as areas in education, employment, and voting for the formerly
incarcerated (Patrick, 2014). This is a significant barrier regarding the low statistics for
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education and employment with in this demographic. Research on high school male
inmates revealed a sample study; subsequently, all had absent fathers, yet provided with a
positive presence it would deter young men away from violence (Allen, 2012). Again, the
idea of mentorship for males is indicative to towards them achieving success and
ultimately creating social change in their lives.
Employment
In recent years, unemployment has had varying fluctuations; research has
addressed the many challenges African-American males face in areas of unemployment
and developed strategies to strengthen their career attainment (Bethall, 2012). It has been
suggested for employment providers to utilize creative approaches towards career
attainment (Arbina, 2014). In addressing career exploration, researchers determined the
benefits of storytelling as a method to discuss career paths, which is a tool that could aid
service providers (Bethall, 2012). Consequently, career assessments and theories fail to
cater to minority groups, the focus should be on career maturity, career decision-making,
self-efficacy, and beliefs (Arbona, 2014). This is particularly a key point for workforce
organizations attempting to combat unemployment within this demographic.
Bethall, explains how African-American males would often pursue careers of
individuals they admire and whom have great influence over them (2012). This explains
the influx of mentorships community programs, similar to My Brother’s Keeper. In
further exploration towards empowering young males, it has been said economic
strengthening through entrepreneurial development has been shown to motivate youth
(Jennings, 2014). Programs such as Hope in a Box, an activity from Operation Hope,
29
which is a non-profit that focuses on community financial success. Hope in a Box molds
young entrepreneurs to create their own profitable businesses. Latino-Americans have
been said to make occupational gains towards economic success through being bilingual,
parental and mentor support (Morando, 2013). Parental support is a vital component
towards the success of our youth; unfortunately, many youths in the inner-city lack
parental involvement and or stability. Another key component is the psychosocial skills
such as perseverance and resiliency, which is attributed towards entrepreneurial,
educational, and professional success amongst men (Jennings, 2014). However, the
question posed is how do stakeholders and nonprofit providers instill perseverance and
resiliency in the lives of men of color?
Initiatives
In recent years, it has been with the steadfastness of politicians, community
leaders, and activist to implement initiatives to help men of color succeed beyond
adversity. As our nation continues to struggle in helping this population this research
analyzes the success and barriers of 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and
Race to the Top, initiatives creating social change in the lives of men of color.
My Brother’s Keeper
My Brother’s Keeper was developed from the disadvantages that several young
men of color have been troubled with as some are ill prepared entering the workforce
which cycles throughout their life (Graves, 2014). My Brother’s Keeper is an initiative
created by President Obama and his Task Force, he eloquently stated "If we help these
wonderful young men become better husbands and fathers, and well-educated,
30
hardworking, good citizens then not only will they contribute to the growth and
prosperity of this country, but they will pass on those lessons to their children, on to their
grandchildren, and start a different cycle. And this country will be richer and stronger for
it for generations to come," (Joiner, 2014). At the University of Penn, in the wake of My
Brother’s Keeper, the university created a 3-year study called R.I.S.E (Research
Integration Strategy Evaluation) to understand and provide better outcomes for African-
American men (Watson, 2015). In like manner, ten years prior to the inception of My
Brother’s Keeper, Todd Anthony Bell created the National Resource Center for African-
American males at Ohio State University, which is a 4-day program consisting of 50-60
males, that takes place prior to freshman year (Gose, 2014). The men in this program
learn skills in areas of motivation and study habits, rather than academic instruction,
which have proven to have a greater success rate towards academic matriculation (Gose,
2014). Although MBK is innovative, it also rests on the backbone of several successful
programs targeting men of color.
In a separate standpoint, Powell and Rockeymoore (2014), calls My Brother’s
Keeper strategies as targeted universalism; whereby, the focus is on men of color and
their disadvantages and not serving other genders or ethnicities. Brendtro, also disputes
My Brother’s Keeper in stating it fails to address disparities in education, employment,
justice, family stability and community health (Brendtro, Mitchell, & Jackson, 2014).
Brendtro’s research focuses on positive psychology and neuroscience to conceptualize
positive growth through four principles; in areas where My Brother’s Keeper lacks,
positive psychology incorporates: belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity
31
(Brendtro, Mitchell, & Jackson, 2014). “A wealth of evidence establishes belonging,
mastery, independence and generosity as foundations for positive life outcomes yet
belonging trumps them all” (Brendtro, Mitchell, & Jackson, 2014, p. 12). Have
organizations adopting these initiates dealt with these challenges with in My Brother’s
Keeper, in addition, have community organizations created programs to ensure males
have a sense of belonging? For My Brother’s Keeper to have an impact, the structural
barriers that African-American and Latinos face must be addressed (Noguera, 2014).
Research shifts to address the ‘colorblind racism’ where prejudice and stereotypes
result in ordinary perceptions of black males. It is the awareness of our unconscious
biases that need to be discussed because the dissolution of negative stereotypes about
black men is unprecedented (Ware, 2014). Scholarly research also adds to this paradigm
with the lack of positive research about men color, as the focus is often on their
disparities.
Race to the Top
Researchers affirmed that Race to the Top (RTTT) made comprehensive
improvements nationwide in areas of assessments, teacher evaluations, and public-school
choice (Weis & Hess, 2015). More specifically this initiative presented 4 federal options
for low performing schools: 1. Transformation – replace principal, 2. Turnaround –
replace majority of staff, 3. Restart – conversion to a charter school, or 4. Closure,
(Tanner, 2013). Race to the Top has paved the way in addressing controversial political
issues with the expansion of charter schools, new academic standards and revamping
teacher evaluations (Harris, 2012). Even though RTTT had good intentions that strive to
32
remedy the inequities of low performing schools, the competitive grant process still
creates winners and losers (Harris, 2012). Although this may be true, other researchers
felt President Obama fell short in achieving the goals for RTTT since children are still
being left behind (Tanner, 2013). In addition, due to the numerous changes, RTTT has
been seen as superficial and the attempt to close the achievement gap has yet to be met
(McGuinn, 2014).
Race to the Top was created for eastern region schools however STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering and Math) schools are widely populated in the western region
and featured in this research as the focus is universal to the RTTT goals and objectives.
The Race to the Top grant program encompasses 4 priorities and the second one focuses
on STEM, which is listed below as seen in the RTTT Executive Summary:
i. To meet this priority, the State’s application must have a high-quality plan
to address the need to offer a rigorous course of study in mathematics, the
sciences, technology, and engineering;
ii. Cooperate with industry experts, museums, universities, research centers,
or other STEM-capable community partners to prepare and assist
teachers in integrating STEM content across grades and disciplines, in
promoting effective and relevant instruction, and in offering applied
learning opportunities for students;
iii. Prepare more students for advanced study and careers in the sciences,
technology, engineering, and mathematics, including by addressing the
needs of underrepresented groups and of women and girls in the areas of
33
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
21st Century Policing
As the goal is to build trust between police officers and communities, Markman
(2015) recommends strategies for the efficacy of 21st Century Policing, which are to test
body cameras, extend police training, discipline officers appropriately, teach moral
consciousness, discipline/dismiss ineffective officers and reduce crime surveillance when
crime is down. In an effort for 21st Century Policing to be accountable, the public needs
to be aware of problematic officers yet this initiative has privacy hurdles despite the goal
in building trust and transparency (Korte, 2015). In addition, as the nation saw the
evolution of body worn cameras come into fruition, policy makers and police officers
must be on the same page when interpreting evidence and defining misconduct because
cameras alone will not end injustice (Van Brant, 2014). At the University of Chicago,
Data Science for Social Good Program the police department has already started plans
towards 21st Century Policing in creating an algorithm of police data that will identify
problematic officers and tag them for training (Rutkin, 2014). In the wake of police
brutality and racial profiling, police departments have unsuccessfully attempted to recruit
minority officers (Alcindor & Penzenstadler, 2015). The experts say diversity also
benefits the police forces when the population reflects the community (Alcindor &
Penzenstadler, 2015).
Barriers
Creating organizational change and implementing new strategies can result in a
variety of challenges. Theories of change has been identified as the framework for this
34
study, it is also the key strategy utilized in restructuring non-profit organizations. This
research explores other change strategies as well as barriers towards implementing public
policy initiatives. This research seeks to understand the barriers towards implementing
public policy initiatives focused on social change in the lives of men of color. Rubio-
Valera (2014) identified qualitative studies as the best practice in identifying barriers
towards implementation. Organizations also have used the diffusion of Innovations
Model, which provides an understanding for implementation guidelines focusing on (3)
attributes: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability (Masse,
Nairman & Naylor, 2013). When looking at the actual individual, organizational theory
has been conceptualized as the social influence to alter one’s attitude in response to
another (Battilana & Casciaro, 2012). Change theory framework helps managers reach
success, unfortunately 2/3 change theory strategies fail due to poor active plans,
ineffective communication, and under-motivated staff (Mitchell, 2013). In a separate
study, it was the utilization of a systematic review to identify barriers in implementation,
which revealed in lacking research and collaboration between researchers and policy
makers (Oliver, Invar, Lorenc, Woodman, & Thomas, 2014). However, when
implementation research has legitimacy towards a set of clear objectives, it is still likely
to be counterproductive (Harden, 2012). Evan, 2012, also discussed barriers to public
policy, his research findings revealed a lack of infrastructure, collaboration on service
offerings and crossing boundaries with federal agencies as challenges towards
organizational success. However, “when motivated to reach a desired conclusion, people
might subtly shift their implicit theories of change and stability to garner supporting
35
evidence for their desired position” (Leith, Ehrlinger, & Wilson, 2014, p. 597). In a
review on multiple studies about theories of change, authors discovered people’s effort to
change their program goals was motivated by self (Leith, et al., 2014).
In affecting organization change, there are various barriers that stakeholders are
challenged with, we seek to understand what has become successful in working with
public policies that affect men of color. Researchers have explored the efficacy within
policy implementation, Organizational Readiness for Change (ORC) has been shown to
have good predictive validity in (4) key areas: motivation for change, staff attributes,
organizational climate and resources (Gill, Campbell, Gauthier, Xenocostas, Charney, &
Macaulay, 2014). Another successful strategy in evaluating implementation strategies is
intervention mapping. This type of design maximizes implementation strategies for
suitable modifications when discussing barriers within (EBI) Evidenced Based
Interventions (Highfield, Hartman, Bartholomew, Bailhe, & Ausburn, 2015). Another
concept is called the theories of action, which is the intellectual heir of ecological
systems theory (Wolf-Powers, 2014). Theories of action, discusses the possibilities for
change while creating options for interventions towards implementation (Wolf-Powers,
2014).
In addition, self-fulfilling prophecies has historically been a barrier for minorities,
it has been defined as when people cause their initial false opinions about themselves to
become true (Madon, et al, 2013). Researchers have also seen self-fulfilling prophecies
within teacher’s misperceptions of their low-income student’s abilities in math and
language skills (Sorhagen, 2013). Notably, self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom has
36
been linked to the level of engagement on how much teachers believed in their student’s
intellectual abilities (Sorhagen, 2013). It is important to realize that a teacher’s belief in a
student can have a long-lasting affect that leads well into adulthood on the expectations
they have for themselves (Riley & Underleider, 2012). In another study, researchers
redefined self-fulfilling prophecy as Early Warning Systems (EWS) which is a method to
predict early warning signs of negative student behavior (Soland, 2013). “These EWS
predict negative student outcomes, such as dropping out before they occur, while
predictions are then used to match at-risk students to appropriate supports and
interventions” (Soland, 2013, p. 233). Are stakeholders that have implemented the
initiatives under the Obama administration dealing with the barriers of self-fulfilling
prophecies when working with men of color? Consequently, self-fulfilling prophecy and
early warning systems can also be categorized as stigmatization and stereotyping (Soland,
2013). Thus, those whom are stigmatized are treated unfairly through various acts of
discrimination, which can presumably limit their life chances towards success (Riley &
Underleider, 2012).
Theory
Researchers have done an exceptional job in identifying theories that conform to
the needs of African-American and Latino males. In this study, ecological systems theory
is utilized to understand the ecological stressors of men of color and how it affects them
as an individual as well as within their family, community, society and lastly as a public
policy. Other theories researched affecting men of color, such as critical race theory
provide a conceptualization on social justice behaviors.
37
Theories such as, African-American Male Theory (AAMT) was created to
account for the pre/post enslavement to discuss the spiritual psychological and education
experiences (Blush & Blush, 2013). In AAMT men defined masculinity as being self-
determined, accountable, prideful and spiritual (Blush & Blush, 2013). Phenomenological
Variants of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST) has specifically been used to research
youth dealing with discrimination, the authors discovered these youths also experienced
high levels of aggression and delinquency (Williams, Aiyer, Durkee, & Tolan, 2014).
Phenomenological Variants of Ecological Systems Theory also “recognizes that what
might be considered objective stressors (violence, economic hardship, & family
instability) might not be experienced the same way by all youth depending on the
resources available to them” (Williams, Aiyer, Durkee, & Tolan, 2014, p. 1729). This
point is relevant because 2 males from the same family, community, etc. may have two
entirely different paths in life. The Phenomenological Variants of Ecological Systems
Theory framework identifies areas of risk within stress engagement and coping
responses, which may be needed to illicit positive outcomes for men of color, across their
life span (Thomas, Hammond, & Kohn-Wood, 2015). As an interdisciplinary model,
Phenomenological Variants of Ecological Systems interprets findings and makes
implications to be applied at the micro, meso, and macro levels (Smith & Patton, 2016).
Consequently, the proposed research on ecological theory has an inadequate perspective
on adolescent development and should be explored thoroughly when analyzing Black and
Latino males (Knight, 2014). Critical Race Theory (CRT) is helpful in this regard, as it
applies emphasis on racial dynamics which is a great tool for ethical decision-making and
38
social justice behaviors (Trahan & Lemberger, 2013). Critical Race Theory also contends
that single gender education offers a strategy for academic achievement amongst African-
American males (Trahan & Lemberger, 2013). This research will also consider the
theories applied when implementing My Brother’s Keeper, Race to the Top and 21st
Century Policing.
Summary
This compelling literature review offers a summary of perspectives on various
methodologies concentrating on 5 themes: barriers, disparities, initiatives, men of color
and theory. These themes focus on a centralized issue in identifying barriers as well as
successes for policy makers and non-profit stakeholders in their work towards adapting
new policy initiatives for African-American and Latino males growing up in the inner-
cities of Los Angeles County.
As this research seeked to discover the common barriers as well as successes
stakeholders face in implementing social change within the lives of African-American
and Latino males we look toward past literature for understanding. The current research
provided informative tools to increase the knowledge base of men of color and the
implementation of public policies. The following provides a synopsis of the key points
gathered in this literature review.
The literature on program implementation affirmed that poor planning (Mitchell,
2013) lack of research and collaboration could have negative effects towards policy
change (Leith, et al., 2014). Another barrier researched; self-fulfilling prophecy, provided
39
new information on how teachers' misconceptions of their student’s intellectual abilities
can lead toward negative academic outcomes for youth (Sorhagen, 2013).
The three major disparities reviewed are academia, criminal justice, and
employment. Research regarding employment opportunities for men of color has
reportedly been a difficult plight, although this may be true, researchers discovered
psychosocial skills in the development of economic strengthening and perseverance can
lead towards professional success (Jennings, 2014). It was also said that storytelling to
discuss career paths has been helpful (Bethal, 2012) in addition to parental support and
advice from mentors (Morando, 2013).
Within the realms of education, men of color combat academic discrimination
(Butler-Barnes, Chavous, Hurd, & Vurd, 2013) when they are susceptible to attending
lower performing schools while living in poverty (Conchas, Lin, Oseguera, & Drake,
2015). Conversely, adversity gives some men of color the ammunition to succeed (Land,
2014) not to mention, keeping the company of role models that reflect success and
struggle (Cerezo, Lyda, Beristianos, Enriquez, & Connor, 2012).
Growing up in some inner cities, youth are exposed to trauma and violence (Smith
& Patton, 2016) with incarceration being a normative lifecycle for these men of color
(Patrick, 2014). On the other hand, the positive presence of a father can deter men of
color from violence (Allen, 2012) and those same you can benefit from environmental
supportive systems (Simmons et al., 2012).
With initiatives like My Brother’s Keeper, whose vision is to help young men of
color for generations to come (Joiner, 2014) and Race to the Top has made
40
comprehensive improvements in education, men of color will have the springboard to
create alternative legacies (Weis & Hess, 2015). Another key point are the efforts of 21st-
century policing in their focus to build trust and transparency (Korte, 2015) and a diverse
policing city (Alcindor & Penzenstadler, 2015).
As research looked to understand men of color, this culture is uniquely different
as in some areas research identified African American males as a subhuman yet emulated
(Williams, Aiyer, Durkee, & Tolan, 2014). Men of color are often categorized as in
having a lower sense of self (Ojeda, Piña-Watson, & Gonzalez, 2016) due to increased
exposure to violence (Williams, Aiyer, Durkee, & Tolan, 2014) and the expectation to
uphold machismo attitudes (Nunez, 2015). Men of color have become empowered
through the diligent support of their families (Hurd, Varner, & Rowley, 2012) and open
communication with their teachers and coaches (Richardson, 2012). Markedly, ecological
systems theory proved to be one of the leading theories researchers use in identifying
factors in aggression, discrimination, and delinquency (Williams, Aiyer, Durkee, &
Tolan, 2014).
Overall, this literature review lacks in providing adequate barriers on the public
policy initiatives analyzed. The analysis of 21st-Century Policing, My Brother's Keeper,
and Race to the Top initiatives fills the gap in literature in creating social change for men
of color living in the inner cities of LA County. This research progresses towards a
deeper conceptualization of the literature in the methods section, toward the utilization of
best practices.
41
Chapter 3: Research Method
This research focused on the initiatives under the Obama Administration, 21st
Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and Race to the Top, that implement social
change, and more importantly, aimed to shift adverse statistics for African-American and
Latino males. The major concern presented is based upon the numerous nonprofit
organizations and initiatives that have a vision to shift statistics in academia, criminal
justice, and employment but have not achieved significant change. The purpose of this
study was to analyze the public policy initiatives that were created to implement social
change in the areas of academia, criminal justice, and employment in the lives of African-
American and Latino males in Los Angeles County. This research aims to close the gap
in literature by analyzing the barriers and success that stakeholders are challenged with as
they seek to create social change within our economy and educational system.
In the methods section, the research design, the role of the researcher, and
methodology are discussed. In addition, the number of participants, recruitment
strategies, and the procedures used in the instrumentation are also discussed. The plan for
data analysis and collection is identified within the discussion of coding and analysis of
software. Chapter 3 concludes with reviewing issues of trustworthiness, credibility,
transferability, dependability, and the ethical procedures with Institutional Review Board
(IRB) approval.
42
Research Design Rationale
Research Question: How are stakeholders able to impact positive social change
through implementing polices that focus on academia, criminal justice, and employment
for African-American and Latino males living in Los Angeles County?
In order to create social change amongst this demographic and to shift the
stereotypical disparities that have historically affected families, communities, and the
economy of African-American and Latino males, the lens of ecological systems theory
was applied (Suarez-Balcazar et al., 2014). In this qualitative action research study I also
used the theory of change as the theoretical foundation. I used it to evaluate the outcomes
and barriers in implementing 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and Race to
the Top for African-American and Latino males. The theoretical framework I used in this
study was the action research model, which focuses on change and development (Fletcher
et al., 2010). The action research model integrates inquiry through a cyclical process of
planning, implementing, observing, and reflecting (Fletcher et al.2010). Further research
of this model will allow stakeholders to address the barriers in adopting the initiatives
under the Obama Administration.
Role of Researcher
The role of the researcher is to act as the observer in analyzing the surveys of
chief executive officers, program directors, program managers, and/or coordinators as
they implement the initiatives under the Obama Administration My Brother’s Keeper,
Race to the Top, and 21st Century Policing. I had no personal relationship with the
participants of this study. However, there were researcher cultural biases that I had to
43
address, as I am from African-American decent. Methods to minimize culture bias were
to adopt culture relativism through displaying a positive regard and being conscious of
cultural assumptions as recommended by Sarnaik (2015). Other biases were having the
awareness for social desirability bias and acquiescence bias when working with
participants. Efforts to minimize these biases were to ensure questions are indirect and
focus on the respondents’ point of view (Sarnaik, 2015).
Methodology
Participant Selection Logic
The participant selection and focus of this research were on stakeholders that have
implemented the public policies that create social change in the lives of African-
American and Latino-American males living in the inner cities of Los Angeles County.
The stakeholders selected for this research were also based on proximity to me as well as
well as the willingness of the organizations to participate in this study. Sixteen
organizations chosen for this study and 25 participants completed the 10 interview
questions. Two participants were disqualified from the study due to a lack of knowledge
in working with African-American and Latino males. The organizations were recruited
via email and followed up with via phone contact. They were chosen based on the
research from their website pertaining to creating social change in the lives of men of
color.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation used in this qualitative action research study was
interviewing participants using open-ended questions. Qualitative interviewing generally
44
consists of nine stages: (a) the research question that will be answered, (b) identifying
interviewees, (c) determining the type of interview, (d) use of adequate recording
procedures, (e) designing the interview protocol, (f) refining the interview questions, (g)
determining the place to conduct the interviews, (h) obtaining consent, and (i) using good
interview procedures (Creswell, 2013). This process was broken up into five phases,
which are listed in Figure 2. I developed interview and focus group questions to properly
answer the research question. The interview questions were emailed through Survey
Monkey, a cloud-based software tool for creating questionnaires, analyzing data, and
getting real-time results (https://www.surveymonkey.com, n.d.). Survey Monkey is
sufficient in building relevant data to gain the perspectives, experiences, and issues
regarding the proposed research questions from the participants
(https://www.surveymonkey.com, n.d.).
Figure 2. Phases of the dissertation study
Phase 1
• Research sites for suitability
Phase 2
• Obtain IRB approval • Create interview questions • Contact Site for participation, submit invitation letter
Phase 3
• Submit informed consent • Submit letters of cooperation • Submit full interview questions • Conduct focus group
Phase 4
• Hand Code repsonses • Check for disconforming evidence • Follow-‐up with partcipants to establish member checking • Develop themes
Phase 5
• Committe will conduct audit trial and make necessary edits • Write Chapters 4 and 5 • Edit Dissertation
45
Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection
As stated in the five phases of dissertation study, the organizations that
implemented the initiatives studied were researched and recruited via email, then phone
contact. I collected data via Survey Monkey and then coded the data. After concluding
my study, I debriefed the participants regarding IRB policies as well as how their
responses were utilized within the research.
Data Analyses Plan
The results from the interview questions were hand coded and the themes were
generated. The participants were also a part of the member checking process to review
their data and disconfirm any evidence which all returned valid. The committee members
conducted the audit trail to establish the level of trustworthiness, creditability, and
conformability, this also returned valid.
Issues of Trustworthiness
Writing about validity in qualitative inquiry is increasingly challenging due to
engaging in procedures to demonstrate credibility and trustworthiness (Creswell &
Miller, 2000). Studies suggest, "the choice of validity procedures is governed by two
perspectives: the lens researchers choose to validate their studies and researcher’s
paradigm assumptions" (Creswell & Miller, 2000, p. 124). This framework helps
researchers establish credibility towards their study. In this inquiry, the lens of the
researcher will stem from a constructivist paradigm utilizing disconfirming evidence; the
participants and the external study will utilize a post positivist paradigm of member
checking and an audit trial (Creswell & Miller, 2000). The procedure for disconfirming
46
evidence is up to the researcher to review the data for consistent or inconsistent themes,
the researcher then examines multiple perspectives in an effort to find validity (Creswell
& Miller, 2000). Member checking is heavily relied upon the participants in the study for
establishing credibility; the researcher systematically takes the interpretations back to
their participants for them to reconfirm their credibility (Creswell & Maxwell, 2000).
"Throughout this process, the researchers asked participants if the themes or categories
makes sense, whether they are developed with sufficient evidence, and whether the
overall account is realistic and accurate" (Creswell & Miller, 2000, p.127). Lastly, the
audit trial is how the researcher establishes external validity by having an auditor
examine the documentation of the research and activities within the study (Creswell &
Maxwell, 2000). " The goal of a formal audit is to examine both the process and product
of the inquiry, and determine the trustworthiness of the findings” (Creswell & Maxwell,
2000, p.128).
Participants had the opportunity to review the data for trustworthiness during the
member checking process and none of the participants felt that any changes needed to be
made. The committee members also validated the data and the themes generated.
Ethical Procedures
The ethical challenges within qualitative studies are often between the researchers
and the participants; the guidelines were listed in the informed consent and letter of
cooperation that was emailed to the participants, which they signed. As the researcher,
the respect for privacy was established with honesty and the avoidance of
misrepresentations (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad, Fomani, Shoghi, & Cheraghi, 2014). The
47
informed consent dictated how the data will be collected, published, the participants and
researchers roll, and the purpose of the research (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad, Fomani,
Shoghi, & Cheraghi, 2014). Personal information was also protected through various
methods of anonymity, confidentiality, and data keeping (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad,
Fomani, Shoghi, & Cheraghi, 2014). Lastly, the Walden University (IRB) approved this
study.
Summary
The purpose of this study is to analyze the public policy initiatives that were
created to implement social change in the areas of academia, criminal justice, and
employment, in the lives of African-American and Latino males in Los Angeles County.
In this qualitative action research study, I used open-ended questions to analyze the data
from public policy stakeholders. I received data from 16 organizations that took on the
initiatives from 21st-Century Policing My Brother's Keeper & Race to The Top, and a
detailed account of the data findings is listed in the following chapter. The goal of this
research is to close the gap that focuses on disparities placed upon African-American and
Latino males; thus, resulting in successful outcomes for men of color in academia,
criminal justice and employment.
48
Chapter 4: Results
In the analyses to discover how stakeholders are able to create social change in
the lives of men color, this chapter presents the results from the interview questions and
focus group. In further detail, the purpose of this study was to analyze the public policy
initiatives that were created to implement social change in the areas of academia, criminal
justice, and employment in the lives of African-American and Latino males living in the
inner cities of Los Angeles County. The research question for my study was How are
stakeholders able to impact positive social change through implementing polices that
focus on academia, criminal justice, and employment for African-American and Latino
males living in Los Angeles County?
In the data analyses process, themes were created after coding the data, member
checking, and a committee audit trail for trustworthiness concluded the data analysis
process. The findings from the interview and focus group provided a rich context of the
various barriers and tools towards success that stakeholders experience in implementing
public policies for this population.
Setting
The participants were emailed the 10 interview questions via Survey Monkey.
The focus group was originally scheduled at one of the participant’s conference rooms,
however due to availability issues, it was held via conference call.
Demographics
Surveys were completed by 27 participants however, two of the participants were
not able to answer the questions due to lack a of experience with men of color as they
49
notated (n/a) more than four times to their responses. The final number of participants
used for this research is 25: two Caucasian, 16 African-American, and six Latino. Six of
the participants were female and 16 were male.
Data Collection
The data was collected via Survey Monkey, which is an online portal for
conducting interviews and then imported on a Microsoft Excel sheet. The focus group
responses were transcribed. I also intended to record the focus group responses but there
was a malfunction in the conference call system.
Data Analysis
Data was analyzed with the participation of 16 organizations, all the participants
held a vision of creating social change in the lives of men of color. Several of the
organizations participated in the focus group, which is discussed in the further detail in
Chapter 5. The aim of this research was to seek stakeholders that work for organizations
focused on public polices set forth by the Obama Administration. All of the selected
organizations fit the study criteria as they facilitate programs in areas of academia,
criminal justice, and/or employment.
The data was analyzed through hand coding and themes generated thereafter.
Each response was thoroughly reviewed multiple times for keywords, phrases, and
themes. There were 10 interview questions (nine multiple choice) asked via Survey
Monkey; demographic questions were combined to alleviate redundancy. The questions
are listed in the results section and in Appendix A.
50
Evidence of Trustworthiness
Once the interviews were completed, the participants had the opportunity to
review their responses for member checking and I was able to clarify responses. All of
the participants confirmed their responses and no changes were made. Two participants
were withdrawn from the interview process due to having limited experience working
with men of color. Then, results were hand coded, themes were generated, and the
committee received the data for credibility and trustworthiness in the audit trail. The audit
trail also included field notes taken during the survey which focused on how many times
participants were sent reminders to complete the survey and highlighted notes from the
participants short answers which was used for coding and theme development. The
research committee reviewed and approved the data given in the audit trail.
Concerning transferability, this study can be expounded upon to identify the
success and barriers in various ethnic groups; demographics in other geographical
locations as well as specific age groups can be identified.
Adjustments can be made to the interview questions for increased differentiation
of the participant responses. Several reminders were emailed to participants to complete
the interview questions. This was unanticipated at the beginning of the data collection
process; however, it resulted in a 70-80% increase in response level The initial participant
recommended the interview questions be multiple-choice to reduce time spent completing
the interview; this request was denied as this study focused on developing new research
from stakeholders and their short answers would later form content for a follow-up study.
Participants completed the interview between 12-75 minutes.
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Results
The results from Appendix 2 are comprised from n=25 participants from 16
organizations, and 9/10 of the questions they answered were a short answer; the 10th
question was a multiple-choice response. During the data analysis, hand coding generated
3-4 themes from each question, which are listed below; chapter 5 includes the
interpretations to the responses.
1. What are the barriers in adhering to public policy initiatives (grant
objectives/expectations) that affect social change in the lives of African-American
and or Latino males in the inner city?
• Themes: Policymakers, Consumers, and Non-profit Leaders.
2. What barriers towards success have you experienced in working with African-
American and or Latino males?
• Themes: Etic, Emic and Educational Barriers.
3. What form of success have you experienced in working with African-American
and or Latino males to effect social change in their lives?
• Themes: Self-confidence, Trust, Empowerment, and Support.
4. What are the best-recommended tools/skills to garner success in working with
African-American and or Latino males from the inner city?
• Themes: Education, Perseverance, and Marketing to the Community.
5. In what ways does your program instill perseverance in the lives of men of color?
• Themes: Consistency, Changing the Perspectives of men and Encouraging
men of color to succeed.
52
6. How often should motivation occur in the lives of African-American and Latino
males in the inner city when programs are focused on creating social change?
• Themes: 70.8% responded with Daily, 25% stated Weekly, and 4.2%
stated Monthly.
7. In what ways have African-American and Latino males been challenged with
their own self-fulfilling prophecies? (Self-fulfilling Prophecy states individuals
that are labeled negatively will become the negative stereotype).
• Themes: Media, Stereotypes, and Emic Influences.
8. What have been your solutions for addressing the racial biases in implementing
initiatives focused on social change for men of color in the areas of academia,
criminal justice, and or employment?
• Themes: Education, Communication, and Role Models.
9. How long does it generally take significant change to occur in the lives of
African-American and or Latino males in the inner city where programs are
focused on creating social change? Why?
• Stakeholders found this question the most difficult to answer as they felt
motivation is concurrent and develops at different stages over one’s life.
10. Why do you believe there isn’t a significant shift in statistics that highlights the
success made in the lives of African-American and or Latino males in the inner
city where programs are focused on creating social change?
• Themes: Decrease in program offerings and the oppression of men of
color.
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Summary
In summation of the stakeholder’s responses, this research was based on
ecological systems theory, which has been used to understand the levels between
individuals and social systems (Suarez-Balcazar, Balcazar, Garcia-Rameriz & Taylor-
Ritzler, 2014). The data showed that the barriers towards social change for men of color
stem from emic and etic forces as seen in Bronfenbrenner’s Theory in Figure 1. on page
7. The data reveled themes in the microsystems (self/family), mesosystem,
(neighborhood) and ecosystem (politics) in addressing concerns about public policy, self-
fulfilling prophecy, racial biases, and working with men of color. Theories of change was
found in the literature to be the leading tool non-profit organizations use for impacting
changes; however, as data was collected, theories of change were not as relevant in this
research but to focus more on a collectivist cultures amongst stakeholders. The impacting
concern was on the discussion about the barriers they face when adopting public policies
to impact change and how in further research the actual perspectives of men of color
could benefit the theories of change. The data extended knowledge in requiring a need for
mixed methods data collection to caption a full picture of what occurs in non-profits.
Stakeholders stated mixed methods would improve and shift statistics more favorably
regarding men of color, as it would highlight more success. Lastly, knowledge was
further extended as stakeholders all felt a need to collaborate more effectively;
unfortunately, they were unable to identify how such collaborations would look like.
The stakeholder’s responses revealed their barriers and success in working with
men color as they implement specific public polices to create social change. The barriers
54
stemmed from a variety of areas, such as ecological influences, academic challenges,
limited funding, and a lack of training in working with men of color. The stakeholders
also shared the success in working with men of color, which was being consistent, having
daily role models, empowering men, building their trust and perseverance. From an
organizational aspect, creative marketing & advertising tools were a needed resource
toward retaining clients and informing the community. The themes discussed in this
chapter are further discussed in chapter 5 from the viewpoint of the stakeholders.
55
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations
Introduction
The following are the interpretations from the participants’ short answers to the
questions listed in Chapter 4 and in Appendix A. The interpretations contain the thoughts
and perspectives of solely the participants, as the role of the researcher was to provide a
summarization of the findings. The participant’s responses are focused on answering the
research question, which is: How are stakeholders able to impact positive social change
through implementing polices that focus on academia, criminal justice, and employment
for African-American and Latino males living in Los Angeles County? My study focuses
on identifying their barriers and successes in implementing public policies and working
with men of color are detailed below.
Interpretation of the Findings
1. What are the barriers in adhering to public policy initiatives (grant
objectives/expectations) that affect social change in the lives of African-American
and or Latino males in the inner city?
Stakeholders reported a lack of funding, which is the biggest concern due to it
affecting the amount of resources given to programs for men of color. Stakeholders also
felt policy makers are not only ignorant of but also arrogant towards fully understanding
the needs of men of color as they display their own biases. The inability to have enough
funding affects resources, which also affects the ability to meet the needs in inner-city
communities. The second theme generated was regarding the actual consumer of
programs. Men of color often associate a stigma about getting resources and their pride
56
inhibits them to receive the help that they desperately need. For the men that do seek
services, they often have a lack of access to resources, which can be attributed to the lack
of advertising and marketing of nonprofit programs. Stakeholders have also seen a lack of
commitment of consumers when receiving resources. This is credited to several factors:
socioeconomic health, lack of familial/social support, and the inability to establish trust
with service providers. Nonprofit leaders also stated their barriers stem from having a
lack of training in working with men of color. Engaging men at their current level of
engagement has been a challenge, be it their educational level or inept life skills. Lastly,
when there is a lack of job consistency and retention amongst employees doing direct
service, this serves as an additional barrier, as men of color have a difficult time
garnering trust.
2. What barriers towards success have you experienced in working with African-
American and or Latino males?
The etic barriers were results from outside the consumer’s inner circle, such as
dealing with racism, stereotypes, and the socioeconomic climate. Funding, lack of
resources, and community buy-in have also been a barrier in working with men of color.
On a political and justice level, funding is a barrier when higher resources are allocated to
prisons instead of educational institutions, as expressed by one of the stakeholders. Media
and societal norms also contribute to the barriers when sports are glorified over education
and other quality professions. Educational barriers have also been an issue when students
often lack rapport with teachers, affecting their school functioning. Stakeholders
expressed, within the inner-city school schools, there is minimal access to technology, a
57
lack of qualified teachers, and an emergent need of in-school mentors. Often, classrooms
fail to offer tools for success as efficient skills for men to work together beyond sports.
The emic barriers stem from within; as men of color will often lack confidence, have
false perceptions of success, and increased level of mistrust. In addition, the lack of
support from family and friends leave them feeling misunderstood. Mental health has
also played a vital role in a barrier towards success for men. “African American/Black
males dealing with trauma and complex PTSD have a greater risk of experiencing mental
health challenges than the rest of the population due to racism, classism and economic
inequalities/injustices that they experience every day in the United States” (Lipscomb,
2016, pg. 5).
3. What form of success have you experienced in working with African-American and
or Latino males to effect social change in their lives?
Nonprofit organizations like 100 Black Men of Long Beach and the Social Justice
Learning Institute have programs that instill various level of self-confidence. The men
have been able to develop their listening skills, express themselves artistically, and be
provided a safe space to show their vulnerabilities. Their increase in self-confidence has
shown success in school, increased their self-esteem and self-development. It is with
stakeholder consistency, honesty, and relationships building the men have gained a better
sense of program buy-in, which also establishes trust. Beyond trust, the men have become
empowered in their program participation, as they are encouraged to strive towards
higher education, leadership opportunities, and the workforce. Success has also come
from men that have been able to respect one another through healthy levels of
58
communication in discussing consequences and how to triumph beyond adversity. Lastly,
the men have found support in various areas of their lives through support networks
(individual and group), parental involvement and peer support. The opportunity for youth
to reach back and help the next person has been an ongoing mentoring model that several
organizations utilize.
4. What are the best-recommended tools/skills to garner success in working with
African-American and or Latino males from the inner city?
This study revealed that the ideal mentor has the following character traits:
• Compassionate
• Consistent
• Respectful
• Successful
• Supportive
• Trustworthy
• Understanding
The ideal mentor also provides individual guidance that instills hope in youth, encourages
change, participates in spiritual meditation, and provides a safe place for open dialogue
for men to share their stores. High impact workshops have been a great tool for behavior
modification towards consequences, awareness, and exposure to career/college that
reiterates their goals. The second tool that instills success in men of color is continuing
the discussion about education and the value of learning. It is necessary to ensure there is
a support system coupled with family involvement to helps lead thy way towards
59
academic success for men of color. The third tool identified is giving men of color the
skills to succeed beyond adversity. In order to do this, stakeholders
need to have a why for what they do. Having a why will help them to remain consistent,
dedicated, and encouraged through the challenges of life and it will build their
confidence. Effective mentors and role models have a why that regenerates and is passed
down from generations to come. Lastly, effective marketing to increase recruitment and
engagement is a vital tool toward organizational success. It is also necessary for
stakeholders to provide internal/external support services for consistent engagement.
Providing quality case management helps stakeholders in ensuring pre and post
assessments for qualitative and quantitative feedback can occur.
5. In what ways does your program instill perseverance in the lives of men of color?
As reflected in other responses, stakeholders and direct service providers must remain
consistent in instilling trust, hope, grit, communication, respect, and discipline.
Stakeholders shared that when they are transparent in verbalizing their struggles
(personal stories) men of color can not only understand perseverance but also apply it in
their lives. One of the participants from a Los Angeles Community College indicated,
instilling perseverance also comes from encouraging youth through programs held on
campus like Umoja and Puente for academic success and empowerment. Addressing and
working through trauma from holistic perspectives has also been significant in triggering
perseverance. Lastly, getting men of color to change their perspective derives from
having good mentors and supportive networks that will increase their confidence.
60
6. How often should motivation occur in the lives of African-American and Latino
males in the inner city when programs are focused on creating social change?
Daily 70.8%; Weekly 25.0%; Monthly 4.2%. This was the one multiple choice
interview question and it did not leave room for further explanation regarding the
participants responses. However, for significant change to occur stakeholders felt
motivation should occur on daily basis because on daily basis they must also fight the
adversities they live in.
7. In what ways have African-American and Latino males been challenged with their
own self-fulfilling prophecies?
The news media can often times be an inadequate source of information that portrays
men of color negatively and fails to highlight their success beyond sports. Social media
and reality TV also contribute in depicting false and or negative images of people of
color. Negativity becomes sensationalized and consumers are held accountable for not
requiring images that are more positive and depicting themselves negatively.
Stakeholders and direct providers reported some males have a “why bother” attitude as
they feed into their self-fulfilling prophecy and become the stereotype of a low achiever.
Lastly, the emic influences also contribute to the negative stereotypes. When men of
color have poor role models, no father figures, and live in a vicious cycle of community
violence, the self-fulfilling prophecy has a greater chance of actualizing.
8. What have been your solutions for addressing the racial biases in implementing
initiatives focused on social change for men of color in the areas of academia,
criminal justice, and or employment?
61
Dealing with racial biases has become more prevalent as police brutality and
punishments mimic the turmoil and prejudice African-Americans faced at the height of
the 1960’s (West, 2011). Stakeholders have a difficult time in working with men color
and giving them the tools to fight racial biases so they can achieve social change in their
lives. It first must begin with cultural and social justice education for men to gain a
cultural history and understand the generations of racism to internalize the full purpose of
social change that will break down barriers. Men of color also need to learn how to
respect the law, comprehend the history of police brutality, and have an awareness of
what ideal policing looks like. Organizations like Why’d You Stop Me (WYSM) is a
nonprofit organization created in 2014 by Long Beach Police Officer Lehman
(wysm.org). Lehman created this nonprofit organization to address the continued distrust
communities have against police officers (wysm.org). Lehman has been able to take
WYSM across the country, training both law enforcement and the community in reducing
acts of violence between police and the community (wysm.org). Similar training needs to
occur with school administration, law enforcement, and news media so they can learn to
avoid their own racial biases. Stakeholders also expressed a need to have communication
between various ethnic groups to help diminish racial biases. They also revealed, positive
role models in the lives of men of color have been shown to improve their own racial
biases as they can discuss alternatives towards racism and how it affects them.
9. How long does it generally take significant change to occur in the lives of African-
American and or Latino males in the inner city where programs are focused on
creating social change? Why?
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This was the most difficult question to code because all the participants had various
answers, which led to a universal theme that change is concurrent. Social Justice
Learning Institute stated their data reveled that changes occurs within 3-6 months;
however, others stated it can take up to a 1 year, within 90 days, or even immediately in
one conservation. In summation, one participant stated, “progress is a process”.
10. Why do you believe there isn’t a significant shift in statistics that highlights the
success made in the lives of African-American and or Latino males in the inner city
where programs are focused on creating social change?
Stakeholders shared, as program offerings decrease, so do the interest of needing
supportive services. When programs lack volunteers, educators, and a male presence,
statistics also shift negatively. In addition, ineffective reporting is an issue because it
effects the funding of programs. When statistics fail to include qualitative reporting,
stakeholders feel quantitative reporting is limited in adding pertinent information about
the real changes within this demographic. Oppression has been a major source of the
stagnation due to the stereotypes seen in the media, news, and Internet.
Limitations, Recommendations, and Implications of the Study
As addressed in Chapter 1, this study had limitations in three key areas:
demographics, stakeholder initiatives, and the statistics analyzed. The purpose of the
research was to primarily focus on African-American and Latino males. Furthermore,
only three initiatives were analyzed; 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper, and
Race to the Top that support the success men of color. Lastly, the policies analyzed are
specific to the impact of academia, criminal justice, and employment.
63
In collecting data there were additional limitations presented. The first was the
length of the interview questions. The first survey participant complained that the
interview questions were too long and overall it was time consuming. With the first
participant’s feedback I made changes in combining questions to eliminate redundancy.
Unfortunately, I was unable to adhere to his final recommendation, which was to create
multiple-choice questions. The other limitation came from the format of the Survey
Monkey interview question page; participants were able to view one question at a time,
which often duplicated their responses. Moving forward I would have all the questions on
one page so, the participants could differentiate their responses. In addition, I would
ensure each question elicited varied responses from the participants.
Additionally, another barrier stakeholders must be aware of within this particular
demographic of inner city lower socio-economic, under-privileged males is the concept
of self-fulfilling prophecies. “The term self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) was coined in 1948
by Robert Merton to describe a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior
which makes the originally false conception come true” (Biggs, 2009, p. 294). Therefore,
the success and sustainability of these government programs that support African-
American and Latino males are heavily weighted upon their own personal belief in
creating change within a system or within themselves. Presumably, assumptions are
contradictory yet plays a significant role in guiding policy formulation (Bockett, 2010).
For stakeholders to successfully implement programs in the lives of at-risk men of color,
they have to potentially break down self-fulfilling prophecies for men to believe beyond
self-fulfilling prophecies (Guyll, Madon, Prieto, & Scherr, 2010). In other respects,
64
epigenetics is the generational inheritance of DNA ranging from the disposition to
develop cancer or becoming obese (Shaw, 2017). In correlation to self-fulfilling
prophecies, research states that a traumatic experience may also be epigenetically
inherited from molecular memory (Kirkpatrick, 2016). Trauma is noted to increase the
manifestation of behavioral and psychological disorders even when the child has never
experienced trauma for themselves (Kirkpatrick, 2016). Dr. Norrington –Sands a
Psychologist with Los Angeles Unified School District stated in a Departmental of
Mental Health presentation, stated that untreated historical trauma is later manifested into
the cradle to the prison pipeline, school dropout rates, homelessness, foster care and
imprisonment.
Beyond the challenges of addressing unemployment, low matriculation, and
criminal justice for men of color; are challenges with policy formulation. The Race to the
Top initiative was created under the Obama Administration, which stemmed from the
failure of The No Child Left Behind initiative from the Bush Administration. “No Child
Left Behind, took the law off track by mandating that all students hit arbitrary scores on
standardized tests instead of ensuring equal opportunities…accountability was hinged
entirely on standardized test scores of a single number that was used to determine
whether students graduate or teachers keep their jobs” (Garcia & Thornton, 2015, p. 1).
The Urban Institute conducted a study in 2013, which revealed other problems non-
profits are experiencing, which are applying, reporting and complying to the
requirements of government contracts and grants (Pettijohn, Vita, Fyffe, & Boris, 2013).
Nevertheless, the stakeholders involved in academic initiatives have pressure to succeed
65
with this challenge to create social change in the lives of African-American and Latino
males. The stakeholders that agreed to take on the My Brother’s Keeper challenge also
have high expectations to ensure our men of color become “successful” under their
program supportive services. Lastly, the inception of the 21st Century Policing Task
Force was formed after the multiple killings of innocent unarmed black men. The
challenge here is also change, how can communities seek refuge in police officers that
take an oath to uphold the law, yet fail to do so. Not only do communities need a mind
shift to remember there is still good in police officers; officers also need to change their
way of thinking about the populations they serve.
Recommendations
Upon concluding the data collection and the focus group, this study revealed
several recommendations towards implementing social change, which is listed in the
Table 1.
Recommendations
Mixed Methods Research
Stakeholder Collaboration
Training Programs
Marketing/Advertising
Outcomes
Mixed method data would aid in garnering increased funding and reveal an in-depth story.
Conferences with multiple non-profit providers’ revealing their success, barriers, and new programs affecting social change.
Skilled direct service workers, mentors, parents, police officers, policy writers, and teachers.
Nonprofit Application for iPhone and Androids phones.
66
The research question asked: How are stakeholders able to impact positive social
change through implementing polices that focus on academia, criminal justice, and
employment for African-American and Latino males living in Los Angeles County?
Key findings recommended a demand to collect mixed method data instead of
exclusively quantitative research, which often depicts statistics negatively for men of
color. The inclusion of mixed method data would ideally support increased funding, as
the entire scope of the consumer would include a favorable scope of goals met.
Stakeholders also expressed a need for collaborative unity amongst themselves,
consistency, and training on how to better serve men of color. Through annual and
national conferences, stakeholders could commune to develop their skill set and learn
innovative tools towards ensuring men of color can succeed. In addition, there was also
an apparent need to develop training programs for direct service workers, mentors,
parents, police officers, policy writers, and teachers. Data reveled that to shift statistics
beyond the negative stereotypes, a better understanding how to truly help this population
is needed. The study also revealed what the ideal characteristics are for mentors working
with this population, which is being compassionate, consistent, respectful, successful,
supportive, trustworthy, and understanding. Organizations like Project Fatherhood have
trainings throughout the year to teach those serving this population on how to better relate
and provide services for men color (projectfatherhood.org). Lastly, due to the stigma of
mental health and obtaining supportive services, stakeholders felt a need for support in
implementing creative marketing and advertising tools for their nonprofit organizations.
The creation of a nonprofit application for consumers and families to use would be a
67
creative groundbreaking tool. The application would recognize the user’s current
location, the user would click on services they need, which would then lead to a
population of nonprofits in their service area. Utilization of this app could offer users
mini-consultations, appointment setting/reminders, and information about a host of
nonprofits providing the services they need. GuideStar is the world’s largest platform for
information about nonprofits as it remains a common tool for nonprofit stakeholders
(guidestar.org). A new application would bridge the gap and assist consumers in
continuing the work with a 21st century approach.
Furthermore, this study closes the gap towards effectively aligning with public
polices to provide supportive services for men of color and offering stakeholders ‘the
what, and the how’ to implement social change within this population.
Implications
Reviewing the participants data provided insight on the stakeholder’s experiences
working with men of color and implementing public policies to impact social change.
Their responses led to a greater awareness into the repercussions of self-fulfilling
prophecies as news, social media, familial influences and the community continue to be
debilitating factors in the lives of men of color raised in the inner city. Social change
ultimately begins with self, as men of color which to create a shift in their lives, the need
of mentors, roles models and positive parenting are the cornerstones. In implementing
public polices, stakeholders felt policy makers and funders lacked proper insight and
training about the challenges men of color face. These challenges make meeting grant
objectives for funding too stringent and as a result, programs get closed. It was
68
recommended for public policy makers to implement qualitative and quantitative data to
further capture the impact of non-profit organizations. When funders seek quantitative
data with this population, men of color have multiple barriers to reach statistical
expectations in the areas of areas of academia, criminal justice, and employment.
Focus Group In fully developing this research to implement social change, a few stakeholders
from the original participants gathered to conduct a focus group. Stakeholders included
Evelyn Wright of the Slauson Learning Center, which is predominantly an all-male
behavioral nonpublic school, focused on improving the lives of men of color in the inner
city. Daniel Castillo of the Social Justice Learning Institute (SJLC), their mission works
towards improving the lives of urban communities of color. Social Justice Learning
Institute has also implemented the My Brother’s Keeper challenge to ensure their youth
are provided the opportunities to prove themselves as scholars. “The Social Justice
Learning Institute specializes in culturally relevant learning, teaching, and curriculum
development which supports positive growth, increase academic competencies, and
expands opportunities for civic participation” (sjli.org). Another stakeholder was Jason
Lehman CEO and Founder of Why’d You Stop Me (WYSM) a non-profit organization
created in 2014 by Long Beach Police Officer. Why’d You Stop Me was created to bring
police and communities together through various trainings presented nationwide. Alan-
Michael Graves of Project Fatherhood, as the Director, this organization addresses the
problem of the absentee incarcerated father through empirically based workshops
69
throughout the county. Project Fatherhood established by the late Dr. Hershel K. Swinger
has a 17-year history of the following objectives:
1. Increased access to and utilization of fatherhood services
2. Increased community capacity to provide fatherhood services
3. Reduced involvement in the child protective system
4. Increased father-to-child contact
5. Greater awareness of fatherhood issues
Employees from Children’s Institute, Inc. also participated they both brought a breadth of
knowledge in serving disenfranchised men of color in areas of education and mental
health.
Due to scheduling, the focus group was conducted via conference call, three key
questions were asked and listed in Appendix B. Often times when a stakeholder
implements a public policy and non-profit organizations are created, it is done in solace
as they seek to build their communities for one common goal, which is social change.
However, the focus group revealed a need for collaboration amongst non-profits with
similar goals and to implement mixed methods research. The focus group also stated to
ultimately affect social change, cycles need to be broken through the catalyst of various
trainings: community policing, cultural, mental health, and parental. The goal would be to
build knowledge and empower the community on a consistent level. Funding was the
primary concern amongst the stakeholders for continuing the work and sustainability for
new and current programs. Overall, the goal of the work was to break barriers in the lives
70
of men of color and see the statistics shift into positive outcomes. Evelyn Wright, of the
Slauson Learning Center in Los Angeles, CA expressed the “work” must begin at home.
Literature
In the literature review as well in the data, collected self-fulfilling prophecy was
stated as a prominent barrier towards success for men of color with additional etic and
emic influences. The data reveled a need to increase the level of training for stakeholders
whereas literature provided new information on how teachers' misconceptions of their
student’s intellectual abilities can lead toward negative academic outcomes for youth
(Sorhagen, 2013). Research regarding employment opportunities for men of color has
been a difficult; however, the increase in psychosocial skills with the development of
economic strengthening and perseverance has been shown to lead towards professional
success (Jennings, 2014). Stakeholders confirmed this, as they offered various skillsets in
supportive programs and mentorships for men color. Within the realms of education,
literature stated men of color combat academic discrimination (Butler-Barnes, Chavous,
Hurd, & Vurd, 2013) when they are susceptible to attending lower performing schools
while living in poverty (Conchas, Lin, Oseguera, & Drake, 2015). Stakeholders also
shared that growing up in the inner city, youth are often bombarded with various barriers
that limit their success in academia and employment. On the other hand, literature
revealed, the positive presence of a father can deter men of color from violence (Allen,
2012) and those same you can benefit from environmental supportive systems (Simmons
et al., 2012). Men of color have become empowered through the diligent support of their
families (Hurd, Varner, & Rowley, 2012) and open communication with their teachers
71
and coaches (Richardson, 2012). Organizations like Project Fatherhood, 100 Black Men
of Long Beach, and the Social Justice Learning Institute have all confirmed that success
within their organizations have stemmed from consistency amongst their staff, dedicated
and passionate role models.
This research was able to expound upon the needs of the stakeholders to become
successful in creating social change in the lives of men of color. Literature lacked to revel
concrete tools and skill sets that stakeholders utilize as well problematic concerns in
implementing public polices. Further research with a case study will continue the work
with actual participants that will continue the goal of creating social change in the lives of
men of color in creating the formula for perseverance with a sociological framework.
Conclusion
This research set out to answer the question: How are stakeholders able to impact
positive social change through implementing polices that focus on academia, criminal
justice, and employment for African-American and Latino males living in Los Angeles
County? The nature of this qualitative study used action research as the framework and
ecological theory and theories of change for the theoretical foundation. It analyzed the
outcomes and barriers in implementing 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s Keeper and
Race to the Top, for African-American and Latino males whom are challenged with
adversities in obtaining academic success, employment and justice. The major concern
presented is based upon the numerous non-profit organizations and initiatives that have a
vision to shift statistics in academia, criminal justice, and employment; however, the
changes over time remain stagnant. This study conducted an action research analysis to
72
determine if public polices have an impact on creating social change in the lives of men
of color and identify strategic solutions for stakeholders. The significance of this study
was to offer public policy stakeholders the tools to affect social change within the lives of
the African-American and Latino males living in various inner cities. The literature
review offered a summary of perspectives on various methodologies concentrating on 5
themes: barriers, disparities, initiatives, men of color and theory. The themes focused on
a centralized issue in identifying barriers as well as successes for policy makers and non-
profit stakeholders in their work towards adapting new policy initiatives. The literature
review lacked to provide adequate barriers or success on the public policy initiatives
analyzed. Alternatively, this research fills the gap to provide stakeholders insight as well
tools in implementing public policies such as 21st Century Policing, My Brother’s
Keeper and Race to the Top. Data was retrieved from 16 organizations and n=25
participants who answered 10 interview questions; their short answers were inductively
coded which revealed significant themes. Daily mentorship was identified as the leading
tool to garner success in working with men color, while ecological influences, limited
funding, policy misalignment, and stereotypical threats have been recurring barriers. Key
findings recommended a demand to collect mixed method data, have stakeholder
collaborations, training programs, creative marketing, advertising solutions to reduce the
stigma of mental health, and obtaining supportive services.
Future Research
The adaptation of a mandatory 4-day program before the start of 9-12th grade
classes similar to the program at Ohio State University would be a phenomenal study to
73
conduct at inner-city schools in Los Angeles, CA. The program would focus on academic
success, time management, and study skills; a similar program at Ohio State University
revealed greater success rates towards academic matriculation (Gose, 2014). Conducting
a case or narrative study about the implementation of a public policy through the strategic
application of programs would provide a profound view from a consumer’s perspective.
With the aim of conducting future research, data would be targeted to program consumers
who would answer multiple-choice questions from the themes created in this initial study.
Stories like David Frazier’s, a Facilitator with Project Fatherhood shared how he
came to a crossroads as a young man to either go down a faulty path towards self-
destruction or the straight and narrow. At 11 years he lay witness to a murder outside of
his home in South Central Los Angeles, CA, thereafter he suffered from acute post-
traumatic disorder and grew up with an absentee father. Raised by his single mother, he
was the eldest of 4 siblings and before this life-changing event; he was identified as the
class clown with behavioral problems. Frazier’s crossroad had him realize that he did not
want to end up killed or in jail, and from that point on he turned his life around. Frazier
shared, during this time another pivotal moment occurred where he received a ‘fatherly
talk’ from his elementary school principal; a Caucasian man that showed him he cared
and wanted Frazier to improve his behavior. Frazier also shared how his brother who
grew up in the same household, at age 14, had a separate crossroads. Unfortunately, his
brother chose to seek vindication for his cousin’s murder and presently lives a life in and
out of the criminal justice system. Living in the inner city, Frazier identified ‘traps’ as
another pivotal moment in a young man’s life, which are illegal ways to get money
74
(robbery, breaking and entering and selling narcotics). Even though Frazier grew up
without his father, the adversity fueled him to never grow up to be like him. The presence
of his grandfather, although a quiet man who also lived in the same household, showed
him how to be hardworking, steady and secure. Even though Frazier had the presence of
his loving and supportive mother and hardworking grandfather, he rarely heard phrases
like “good job” or “you’re going to be great” which was reassurance he needed growing
up. When asked about his experiences growing up, could he identify a formula for men of
color to succeed, he stated for organizations to hire men from the community, reinforce
success in the schools and provide more support in the home for single mothers. Today,
Frazier continues the work as a Facilitator for Project Fatherhood working in various
inner-city communities. Frazier assists formerly incarcerated men through the catalyst of
empowering weekly workshops and being a mentor that embodies social change.
Hearing elements of Frazier’s story ignites the interest to continue the research
towards the development for the formula of perseverance for men of color living in the
inner city. Further research would also explore the median age men come to a crossroads
in attempt to offset such “traps” that lead towards criminal behavior and academic
deterioration. As stated before, a case or narrative study about men like Frazier would
highlight the success of men faced with advertises. The study would also provide tools to
be taught in the schools and at non-profits that would effectively continue the work of
social change with a consumer perspective.
75
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Appendix A: Interview Questions
1. What are the barriers in adhering to public policy initiatives (grant
objectives/expectations) that affect social change in the lives of African-American
and or Latino males in the inner city?
2. What barriers towards success have you experienced in working with African-
American and or Latino males?
3. What form of success have you experienced in working with African-American and
or Latino males to effect social change in their lives?
4. What are the best-recommended tools/skills to garner success in working with
African-American and or Latino males from the inner city?
5. In what ways does your program instill perseverance in the lives of men of color?
6. How often should motivation occur in the lives of African-American and Latino
males in the inner city when programs are focused on creating social change? Daily
70.8% Weekly 25.0% Monthly 4.2%
7. In what ways have African-American and Latino males been challenged with their
own self-fulfilling prophecies? (Self-fulfilling Prophecy states individuals that are
labeled negatively will become the negative stereotype).
8. What have been your solutions for addressing the racial biases in implementing
initiatives focused on social change for men of color in the areas of academia,
criminal justice, and or employment?
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9. How long does it generally take significant change to occur in the lives of African-
American and or Latino males in the inner city where programs are focused on
creating social change? Why?
10. Why do you believe there isn’t a significant shift in statistics that highlights the
success made in the lives of African-American and or Latino males in the inner city
where programs are focused on creating social change?
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Appendix B: Focus Group Questions
1. Please think about affecting social change in the lives of African-American and
Latino males, what comes to mind?
2. If there are multiple non-profits that have similar visions, what are the action items
that should be implemented to make significant change to alter the statistics in areas
of academia, criminal justice, and employment?
3. What are your final thoughts for this research in shaping the lives of men of color and
public policy?
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Appendix C: Results
Question #1 Themes
What are the barriers in adhering to public policy initiatives (grant objectives/expectations) that affect social change in the lives of African-American and or Latino males in the inner city?
Policy Makers Consumers: Men of Color
Non-profit Leaders
Participant Quote: “Often times there are discrepancies between grant expectations and how much resources are allocated by the granter to address the specific challenge. In addition, the granter understands the challenge and potential solutions from a research level but does not fully understand how it all plays out in the field. Therefore, their expectations on duration, timeline, scope, scale, practices, theory of change, outcomes, measures of success, and etc. are slightly misaligned with the ways the grantees operate to achieve those desired results”.
Question #2 Themes
What barriers towards success have you experienced in working with African-American and or Latino males?
Etic Barriers Educational Barriers Consumers: Men of Color
Participant Quote: “Two major barriers exist. One is positioned in the acrimonious debate that our males should pull themselves up by their own bootstraps. In this scenario, the problems of concentrated poverty, poor schooling, and lack of job opportunities are ignored, while the individual is viewed as responsible for the social achievement gap. The other barrier is that communities of color do face insurmountable barriers to progress that are not imagined, but systemic of past histories and antecedents that exist due to social and economic conditions from the past, that impact our communities in the present”.
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Question #3 Themes
What form of success have you experienced in working with African-American and or Latino males to effect social change in their lives?
Self-confidence Trust & Support Empowerment
Participant Quote: “It is important to not focus on the deficits of an individual, but focus on the strengths. I have asked a variety of times the clients I have worked with to give me what their deficits are and typically I get a long list of what others have told them they are not good at. When I have asked what they believe their strengths are, the typical answer is I don't know. It is important to use strength-based approaches that encourage change talk to come from the individual and not me trying to push an agenda. We are all adults who for the most part is capable of understanding that we are the bearers of our choices. So, it has been my job to show and encourage better decision-making and begin positive goal setting that encourages growth in an individual. If I have a client that has a particular interest, it is an opportunity to encourage them to pursue similar interests as a career or as a motivating tool to move away from poor decision making. It is frustrating at times, but ultimately the one making decisions is the individuals we work with”.
Question #4 Themes
What are the best-recommended tools/skills to garner success in working with African-American and or Latino males from the inner city?
Mentoring & Education
Marketing & Research Perseverance
Participant Quotes: “Focus on early education, reading, writing and arithmetic when they are young so
they will be placed in advanced honors programs. Expose them to career, college, successful people, fine arts, and STEM. Help them find the value in learning and their value in the classroom. Be supportive and be the one they can come talk to...be understanding and empathetic. Empower them, start talking to young men of color about goals, dreams and the connection between hard work, education at different levels and having a plan of action. Further the conversation by helping them to understand that they have to take small manageable steps towards the goals and dreams every day while demonstrating grit”.
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Question #5 Themes
In what ways does your program instill perseverance in the lives of men of color?
Consistency Encouragement Perspective
Participant Quotes: “The best -recommended tool/skills, which garner success is the ability to inspire and demonstrate success others have had. When those of African-American and Latino ethnicity see others like them (neighbors, family, people they know in the community) take part in respective undertakings, they are generally inclined to join in. Create succinct and rich approaches that are relatively, timely, and embrace passion. This tool is effective as well. It is also recommended to choose the leader of the group and have the leader speak to the strength, integrity, and authenticity of whatever is offered”.
Question #7 Themes
7.In what ways have African-American and Latino males been challenged with their own self-fulfilling prophecies? (Self-fulfilling Prophecy states individuals that are labeled negatively will become the negative stereotype).
Media Stereotypes Etic/Emic Influences
Participant Quotes: “Statistics say that 89% of black and Latino males that grows up in the inner city, will become a product of their environment. Self-fulfilling Prophecies are fueled by tradition that's engraved in the brains of inner city boys. When this learned behavior is unlearned and replaced with positive and constructive habits, I have witnessed curses being reversed and family legacies being restored to glory”.
Question #6 Themes
6.How often should motivation occur in the lives of African-American and Latino males in the inner city when programs are focused on creating social change?
Daily 70.8% Weekly 25.0% Monthly 4.2%
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Question #8 Themes
What have been your solutions for addressing the racial biases in implementing initiatives focused on social change for men of color in the areas of academia, criminal justice, and or employment?
Education Communication Role Models
Participant Quotes: “I personally have been able to develop programs to promote social change that not only have provided direct services but also have fostered a sense of spiritual development. Inner change must take place before any meaningful external or lasting change.
Question #9 Themes
How long does it generally take for significant change to occur in the lives of African-American and or Latino males in the inner city where programs are focused on creating social change? Why?
Weeks Months Year or more
Participant Quotes: “Our data indicates that a significant change can be identified within 3-6 months”
Question #10 Themes
Why do you believe there isn’t a significant shift in statistics that highlights the success made in the lives of African-American and or Latino males in the inner city where programs are focused on creating social change?
Programs Reporting Oppression
Participant Quotes: “Many programs and services are very underfunded and cannot endure that challenges of funding cycles that can lead to termination of services and or programs all together”.